| Emperor ofChina | |
|---|---|
| 皇帝 | |
Imperial | |
 | |
 Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China(r. 221–210 BC).[1] Mid 19th century depiction | |
| Details | |
| Style | HisImperial Majesty(陛下;Bìxià) |
| First monarch | Qin Shi Huang |
| Last monarch | Puyi |
| Formation | 221 BC(2245–2246 years ago) |
| Abolition | 12 February 1912(113 years ago)[n 1] |
ThroughoutChinese history, "Emperor" (Chinese:皇帝;pinyin:Huángdì) was the superlative title held by themonarchs ofimperial China's variousdynasties. In traditional Chinese political theory, the emperor was the "Son of Heaven", anautocrat with thedivine mandate to ruleall under Heaven. Emperors were worshiped posthumously under animperial cult. The lineage of emperors descended from a paternal family line constituted a dynasty, andsuccession in most cases theoretically followedagnatic primogeniture. The emperor of China was anabsolute monarch.
During theHan dynasty,Confucianism gained sanction as the official political theory. The absolute authority of the emperor came with a variety of governing duties and moral obligations; failure to uphold these was thought to remove the dynasty's Mandate of Heaven and to justify its overthrow. In practice, emperors sometimes avoided the strict rules of succession and dynasties' purported "failures" were detailed inofficial histories written by their successful replacements or even later dynasties. The power of the emperor was also limited by theimperial bureaucracy, which was staffed byscholar-officials, andeunuchs during some dynasties. An emperor was also constrained byfilial obligations to his ancestors' policies and dynastic traditions, such as those first detailed in theMing-eraHuang-Ming Zuxun (Ancestral Instructions).
During theWestern Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 BC – 771 BC), Chinesevassal rulers with power over theirparticular fiefdoms served a strong central monarch. Following a brutal succession crisis and relocation of the royal capital, the power of theZhou kings (王;wáng[a]) waned, and during theEastern Zhou period, the regional lords overshadowed the king and began to usurp that title for themselves. In 221 BC, after the King ofQin completed the conquest of the various kingdoms of theWarring States period, he adopted a new title to reflect his prestige as a ruler greater than the rulers before him. He called himself "Shi Huangdi", or the 'First Emperor'. Before this,Huang (皇 'august', 'sovereign'[b]) was most commonly seen as a reverential epithet for a deceased ancestor, andDi (帝,OC:*tˤeks) was an apical ancestor, originally referring tothe deified ancestors of theShang kings.[7][c] In the 3rd century BC, the two titles had not previously been used together. The emperor of China, like the Zhou kings before him, and the Shang kings before them, was most commonly referred to asTianzi (天子 'Son of Heaven'), who wasdivinely appointed to rule. The appellationHuangdi carried similar shades of meaning.[8] Alternate English translations of the word include "The August Ancestor", "The Holy Ruler", or "The Divine Lord". On that account, some modern scholars translate the title as "thearch".[7]
On occasion, the father of the ascended emperor was still alive. Such an emperor was titled as theTaishang Huang ('grand imperial sire'). The practice was initiated by Qin Shi Huang, who gave the title as aposthumous name to his own father, as was already common for monarchs of any stratum of power.Liu Bang, who established theHan dynasty, was the first to become emperor while his father yet lived. It was said he granted the title during his father's life because he would not be done obeisance to by his own father, a commoner.[9][10]
Owing to political fragmentation, over the centuries, it has not been uncommon to have numerous claimants to the title of "Son of Heaven". The Chinese political concept of theMandate of Heaven essentially legitimized those claimants who emerged victorious. The proper list was considered those made by theofficial dynastic histories; thecompilation of a history of the preceding dynasty was considered one of the hallmarks of legitimacy, along with symbols such as theNine Ding or theHeirloom Seal of the Realm. As with the First Emperor, it remained very common to grant posthumous titles to the ancestors of the victors.
TheYuan andQing dynasties were founded by successful invaders of different ethnic groups. As part of their rule over China, they also went through the culturally appropriate rituals of formally declaring a new dynasty and taking on the Chinese title ofHuangdi, in addition to the titles of their respective people, especially in the case of the Yuan dynasty. Thus,Kublai Khan was simultaneouslykhagan of theMongols and emperor of China.
In 1911, the title ofPrime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet was created to rule alongside the emperor, as part of an attempt to turn China into aconstitutional monarchy.
Puyi, who had reigned as the Xuantong Emperor, abdicated on 12 February 1912, ending the Qing dynasty as well as the imperial tradition altogether, after more than 2100 years.Yuan Shikai, formerPresident of the Republic of China, attempted torestore dynastic rule with himself as the Hongxian Emperor, however he abdicated the throne on 22 March 1916 after only 83 days.[3] Puyi wasbriefly restored for 12 days during a coup in 1917 but was overthrown again shortly after. Although permitted to remain in the palace, he absconded to the Japanese concession inTianjin in 1924. In 1934 he was installed as emperor ofManchukuo, aJapanese puppet state. In 1945, he was captured by theRed Army as a prisoner of war, where he was held in the Siberian city ofChita. In 1950, he was extradited to China and imprisoned inFushun War Criminals Management Centre. He would be formally pardoned and released in 1959, working in a repair shop and as a researcher of literature and history until his death in 1967.[11]
The current head of theHouse of Aisin-Gioro and hypothetical claimant to the throne isJin Yuzhang. He has worked for various local councils on China, and has no interest in the restoration of monarchy.[12]
Traditional political theory holds that there can only be one legitimate Son of Heaven at any given time. However, identifying the "legitimate" emperor during times of division is not always uncontroversial, and therefore the exact number of legitimate emperors depends on where one stands on a number of succession disputes. The two most notable such controversies are whetherCao Wei orShu Han had legitimacy during theThree Kingdoms, and at what point theSong dynasty ceased to be the legitimate dynasty in favor of theYuan dynasty.[13] The Qing view, reported to Europe by the Jesuits, was that there had been 150 emperors from the First Emperor to theKangxi Emperor.[14] Adding the eight uncontroversial emperors that followed the Kangxi Emperor would give a grand total of 158 emperors from the First Emperor to Puyi.
By one count, from theQin dynasty to theQing dynasty, there were a total 557 individuals who at one point or another claimed the title of Emperor, including several simultaneous claimants at various times.[15] Some, such asLi Zicheng,Huang Chao, andYuan Shu, declared themselves the emperors,Son of Heaven and founded their own empires as a rival government to challenge the legitimacy of and overthrow the existing emperor. Among the most famous emperors wereQin Shi Huang of theQin dynasty, emperorsGaozu,Han Wudi as well asGuangwu of the Han,Emperor Taizong of Tang of the Tang, theHongwu Emperor andYongle Emperor of the Ming, and theKangxi Emperor of the Qing.[16]
The emperor's words were considered sacred edicts (圣旨;聖旨), and his written proclamations were called 'directives from above' (上谕;上諭). In theory, the emperor's orders were to be obeyed immediately. He was elevated above all commoners, nobility and members of the Imperial family. Addresses to the emperor were always to be formal and self-deprecatory, even by the closest of family members.
In practice, however, the power of the emperor varied between different emperors and differentdynasties. Generally, in the Chinesedynastic cycle, emperors founding a dynasty usually consolidated the empire through comparativeautocracy—examples include Qin Shi Huang, emperors Gaozu and Guangwu of Han, Emperor Taizong of Tang,Kublai Khan of the Yuan, and theKangxi Emperor of the Qing.
The usual method for widespread geographic power consolidation was to involve the whole family. From generation to generation, the bonds weakened between the branches of family established as local rulers in different areas. After a sufficient period of time, their loyalty could no longer be assured, and the taxes they collected sapped the imperial coffers. This led to situations like the reign ofEmperor Wu of Han, who disenfranchised and annihilated the nobilities of virtually all imperial relatives whose forebears had been enfeoffed by his own ancestor, Gaozu.[17]: 76–84
Apart from a few very energetic monarchs, the emperor usually delegated the majority of decision making to the civil bureaucracy (chiefly thechancellery and theCentral Secretariat), the military, and in some periods thecensorate. Paranoid emperors, like Emperor Wu of Han and the Ming'sHongwu Emperor, would cycle through high government officials rapidly, or simply leave top-ranking posts vacant, such that no one could threaten their power. During other reigns, certain officials in the civil bureaucracy wielded more power than the emperor himself.[18]
The emperor's position, unless deposed in a rebellion, was always hereditary, usually byagnatic primogeniture. As a result, many emperors ascended the throne while still children. Duringminority reigns, theEmpress Dowager, the emperor's mother, would usually possess significant political power, along with themale members of her birth family. In fact, the vast majority of female rulers throughout Chinese Imperial history came to power by ruling asregents on behalf of their sons; prominent examples includeEmpress Lü Zhi of the Han, as well as the empress dowagersCixi andCi'an during the Qing, who for a time ruled jointly as co-regents. Where Empresses Dowager were too weak to assume power, or her family too strongly opposed, court officials often seized control. Courteunuchs had a significant role in the power structure, as emperors often relied on a few of them as confidants, which gave them access to many court documents. In a few places, eunuchs wielded vast power; one of the most powerful eunuchs in Chinese history wasWei Zhongxian during the Ming. Occasionally, other nobles seized power as regents.
The actual area ruled by the emperor of China varied from dynasty to dynasty. In some cases, such as during theSouthern Song dynasty, political power in East Asia was effectively split among several governments; nonetheless, thepolitical fiction that there was but one ruler was maintained.
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The title ofemperor was hereditary, traditionally passed on from father to son in each dynasty. There are also instances where the throne is assumed by a younger brother, should the deceased emperor have no male offspring. By convention in most dynasties, the eldest son born to theEmpress consort (嫡长子;嫡長子) succeeded to the throne. In some cases when the empress did not bear any children, the emperor would have a child with another of his many wives (all children of the emperor were said also to be the children of the empress, regardless of birth mother). In some dynasties the succession of the empress' eldest son was disputed, and because many emperors had large numbers of progeny, there were wars of succession between rival sons. In an attempt to resolve after-death disputes, the emperor, while still living, often designated a crown prince (太子). Even such a clear designation, however, was often thwarted by jealousy and distrust, whether it was the crown prince plotting against the emperor, or brothers plotting against each other. Some emperors, like theYongzheng Emperor, after abolishing the position of Crown Prince, placed the succession papers in a sealed box, only to be opened and announced after his death.
Unlike, for example, the Japanese monarchy, Chinese political theory allowed for a change in the ruling house. This was based on the concept of the "Mandate of Heaven". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the "Son of Heaven" and held a mandate to rule over everyone else in the world; but only as long as he served the people well. If the quality of rule became questionable because of repeated natural disasters such as flood or famine, or for other reasons, then rebellion was justified. This important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties. This principle made it possible even for peasants to found new dynasties, as happened with the Han and Ming dynasties, and for the establishment ofconquest dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and Manchu-led Qing dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the "Mandate of Heaven".
There has been only one lawfulqueen regnant in Chinese history,Wu Zetian, who briefly replaced theTang dynasty with her ownWu Zhou dynasty. Many women, however, did become de facto leaders, usually asEmpress Dowager. Prominent examples includeEmpress Dowager Lü of the Han,Empress Liu of theSong, and Empress Dowager Cixi of the Qing.
As the emperor had, by law, an absolute position not to be challenged by anyone else, his subjects were to show the utmost respect in his presence, whether in direct conversation or otherwise. When approaching the imperial throne, one was expected tokowtow before the emperor. In a conversation with the emperor, it was considered a crime to compare oneself to the emperor in any way. It wastaboo to refer to the emperor by his given name, even for the emperor's own mother, who instead was to useHuangdi (皇帝), or simplyEr (儿;兒 'son', for a male emperor). The given names of all the emperor's deceased male ancestors were forbidden from being written, and were avoided (避諱) by the use of synonyms, homophones, or leaving out the final stroke of the taboo character. This linguistic feature can sometimes be used to date historical texts, by noting which words in parallel texts are altered.
The emperor was never to be addressed asyou. Instead, one usedBixia (陛下 'bottom of the steps'), corresponding to "Your Imperial Majesty" and originally referring to his attendants,Huangshang (皇上 'imperial highness',Shengshang (圣上;聖上 'holy highness') orTianzi (天子 'Son of Heaven'). The emperor was also alluded to indirectly through reference to theimperial dragon symbology. Servants often addressed the emperor asWansuiye (万岁爷;萬歲爺 'lord often thousand years'). The emperor referred to himself aszhen (朕), the original Chinese first-person singular pronoun arrogated by Qin Shi Huang, functioning as an equivalent to theroyal we. In front of subjects, the emperor may also refer to themselves self-deprecatingly asGuaren (寡人 'the morally-deficient one') orGu (孤 'lonely one').
In contrast to the Western convention of using a regnal or personal name (e.g. George V) to refer to a sovereign, the emperor was referred to in the third person simply asHuangdi Bixia (皇帝陛下 'His Majesty the Emperor') orDangjin Huangshang (当今皇上;當今皇上 'present emperor above'). Under the Qing, the emperor was usually styled 'His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of the Great Qing Dynasty,Son of Heaven, Lord ofTen Thousand Years', though this varied considerably. In historical texts, the present emperor was almost universally referred to asShang (上).
Generally, emperors also ruled with anera name (年号;年號;nián hào). Since the adoption of era names byEmperor Wu of Han and up until theMing dynasty, the sovereign conventionally changed the era name semi-regularly during his reign. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, emperors simply chose one era name for their entire reign, and people often referred to past emperors with that title. In earlier dynasties, the emperors were known with atemple name given after their death. Most emperors were also given aposthumous name which was sometimes combined with the temple name (e.g. Emperor Shengzu Ren圣祖仁皇帝;聖祖仁皇帝 for the Kangxi Emperor). The passing of an emperor was referred to asJiabeng (驾崩;駕崩 'collapse of the imperial chariot') and an emperor that had just died was referred to asDaixing Huangdi (大行皇帝 'the emperor of the great journey').
InImperial China,child marriage was the norm.[19][20] The imperial family was made up of the emperor and the empress (皇后) as the primary consort and Mother of the Nation (国母;國母). In addition, the emperor would typically have several other consorts andconcubines (嫔妃;嬪妃), ranked by importance into aharem, in which the Empress was supreme. Every dynasty had its set of rules regarding the numerical composition of the harem. During the Qing dynasty, for example, imperial convention dictated that at any given time there should be oneEmpress, oneImperial Noble Consort, twoNoble Consort, fourConsort and sixConcubine, plus an unlimited number ofNoble Lady,First Class Attendant andSecond Class Attendant. Although the emperor had the highest status by law, by tradition and precedent theempress dowager (皇太后) usually received the greatest respect in the palace and was the decision maker in most family affairs. At times, especially when a young emperor was on the throne, she was the de facto ruler. The emperor's children, the princes (皇子) and princesses (公主), were often referred to by their order of birth—e.g. Eldest Prince or Third Princess. Princes were often given titles of peerage once they reached adulthood. The emperor's brothers and uncles served in court by law, and held equal status with other court officials (子). The emperor was always elevated above all others despite any chronological or generational superiority.
Recent scholarship is wary of applying present-dayethnic categories to historical situations. Most Chinese emperors have been considered members of theHan ethnicity, but there were also many Chinese emperors who were of non-Han ethnic origins. The most successful of these were theKhitans of theLiao dynasty, theJurchens of theJin dynasty (1115–1234), who later ruled theQing dynasty as theManchus, and the Mongols of the Yuan dynasty. The orthodox historical view sees these as dynasties assinicized polities as they adopted Han culture, claimed theMandate of Heaven, and performed the traditional imperial obligations such as annual sacrifices to Heaven for rain and prosperity. The revisionistNew Qing History school, however, argues that the interaction between politics and ethnicity was far more complex and that elements of these dynasties differed from and altered "native Chinese" traditions concerning imperial rule.[21]
顏師古曰：「太常者，王之旌也，畫日月焉。王者有大事則建以行，禮官主奉持之，故曰奉常，後改為太，尊大之義也。」
旗物：王建大常，諸侯建旗，孤卿建旃，大夫、士建物，師都建旗，州里建旟，縣鄙建旐，道車載旞，斿車載旌。
