Otto II was made joint-ruler of Germany in 961, at an early age, and his father named him co-Emperor in 967 to secure his succession to the throne. His father also arranged for Otto II to marry theByzantine PrincessTheophanu, who would be his wife until his death. When his father died after a 37-year reign, the eighteen-year-old Otto II becameabsolute ruler of theHoly Roman Empire in a peaceful succession. Otto II spent his reign continuing his father's policy of strengthening Imperial rule in Germany and extending the borders of the Empire deeper intoSouthern Italy. Otto II also continued the work of Otto I in subordinating theCatholic Church to Imperial control.
Early in his reign, Otto II defeated amajor revolt against his rule from other members of theOttonian dynasty who claimed the throne for themselves. His victory allowed him to exclude theBavarian line of the Ottonians from the line of Imperial succession. This strengthened his authority as Emperor and secured the succession of his own son to the Imperial throne.
With domestic affairs settled, Otto II would focus his attention from 980 onward to annexing the whole of Italy into the Empire. His conquests brought him into conflict with theByzantine Empire and with theMuslims of theFatimid Caliphate, who both held territories in southern Italy. After initial successes in unifying the southernLombard principalities under his authority and in conquering Byzantine-controlled territory, Otto II's campaigns in southern Italy ended in 982 following adisastrous defeat by the Muslims. While he was preparing to counterattack Muslim forces, amajor uprising by the Slavs broke out in 983, forcing the Empire to abandon its major territorial holdings east of theElbe river.
Otto II died suddenly in 983 at the age of 28 after a ten-year reign. He was succeeded as Emperor by his three-year-old sonOtto III, plunging the Empire into a political crisis.
Otto II was born in 955, the third son of KingOtto the Great of Germany and his second wife,Adelaide of Italy. By 957, Otto II's older brothers, Henry (born 952) and Bruno (born 953), had died, as well asLiudolf, Otto I's son from his first wife,Eadgyth. With his older brothers dead, the two-year-old Otto became Otto I'sheir apparent. Otto I entrusted his illegitimate son,Archbishop William of Mainz, with Otto II's literary and cultural education.Odo, margrave of theEastern March, taught the young Otto the art of war and the kingdom's legal customs.
Needing to put his affairs in order prior to his descent intoItaly, Otto I summoned aDiet at Worms and had Otto II elected, at the age of six, co-regent in May 961. Otto II was later crowned by his uncleBruno the Great,archbishop of Cologne, atAachen Cathedral, probably onPentecost (26 May).[1] While Otto I had secured the succession of the throne, he had violated the kingdom'sunwritten law that succession rights could only be granted to a child who has reached theage of majority. He was likely motivated by the high risk associated with his expedition into Italy to claim the imperial title from the pope. Otto I crossed the Alps into Italy, while Otto II remained in Germany, and the two archbishops, Bruno and William, were appointed as hisregents. After three-and-a-half years in Italy, Otto I returned to Germany early in 965 asHoly Roman emperor. In order to give the hope of dynastic continuity after his death, Otto I again confirmed Otto II as his heir on 2 February 965, the third anniversary of Otto I's coronation as emperor.
Otto II (left) and Theophano anointed as Emperor and Empress
Though Otto I was crowned emperor in 962 and returned to Germany in 965, the political situation in Italy remained unstable. After almost two years in Germany, Otto I made a third expedition to Italy in 966. Bruno was again appointed regent over the eleven-year-old Otto II during Otto I's absence.
With his power over northern and central Italy secured, Otto I sought to clarify his relationship with theByzantine Empire in the East. TheByzantine Emperor objected to Otto's use of the title "emperor". The situation between East and West was finally resolved to share sovereignty over southern Italy. Otto I sought a marriage alliance betweenhis house and the EasternMacedonian dynasty. A prerequisite for the marriage alliance was the coronation of Otto II as co-emperor. Otto I then sent word for Otto II to join him in Italy. In October 967, father and son met inVerona and together marched throughRavenna to Rome. On 25 December 967, Otto II was crowned co-emperor byPope John XIII, securing Otto II's succession to the Imperial crown following his father's death.[2]
Otto II's coronation allowed marriage negotiations to begin with the East. Only in 972, six years later, under the new Byzantine EmperorJohn I Tzimiskes, was a marriage and peace agreement concluded, however. Though Otto I preferredAnna Porphyrogenita, daughter of former Byzantine EmperorRomanos II, as she wasborn in the purple, her age (then only five years old) prevented serious consideration by the East. The choice of Emperor John I Tzimisces was his nieceTheophanu, who was the soldier-emperor's niece by marriage. On 14 April 972, the sixteen-year-old Otto II wasmarried to the fourteen-year-old Eastern princess, and Theophanu was crowned empress by the pope.[3]
Even after his coronation, Otto II remained in the shadow of his overbearing father. Though the nominal co-ruler of the Empire, he was denied any role in its administration. Unlike his earlier sonLiudolf, whom Otto I namedduke of Swabia in 950, Otto II was granted no area of responsibility. Otto II was confined primarily to northern Italy during his father's time south of the Alps. After five years away, the imperial family returned toSaxony in August 972.
On 7 May 973, Otto died of fever, and Otto II succeeded his father as sole emperor without meeting any opposition.[3] Otto II spent his reign continuing his father's policy of strengthening Imperial rule in Germany and extending it deeper into Italy.
When Otto the Great died, the smooth succession to the imperial throne of Otto II had long been guaranteed. Otto II had been king of Germany for twelve years and emperor for five at the time of Otto the Great's death. Unlike his father, Otto II did not have any brothers to contest his claims to the throne. On May 8, the nobles of the Empire assembled before Otto II and, according to the Saxon ChroniclerWidukind of Corvey, "elected" Otto II as his father's successor. One of Otto II's first acts was to confirm the rights and possessions of thearchbishop of Magdeburg. Although Otto II had succeeded peacefully to the throne, internal divisions of power still remained unaddressed. During his first seven years as emperor, he was constantly occupied with maintaining Imperial power against internal rivals and external enemies.
The domestic problems Otto the Great faced between 963 and 972 had not been resolved by his death. The Saxon nobility continued to resist theArchdiocese of Magdeburg located along the Empire's eastern border. Though established by Otto I, the exact details of the diocese's boundaries were left to Otto II and his aides. Otto II's marriage Theophanu proved to be to his disadvantage because the Saxon nobles felt it distanced the emperor from their interests. Among Otto II's chief advisors, only the Saxon BishopDietrich I of Metz had close connections with the old Saxon nobility. His other advisers lacked support from the Empire's various dukes. Thearchbishop of Mainz,Willigis, appointed in 975, who had been Otto II's advisor since Otto the Great's second expedition into Italy in the 960s, had not been born into a noble family.Hildebald of Worms, who had been appointed as Otto II'schancellor in 977 and then asbishop of Worms in 979, was also not from a noble family.
Otto the Great also failed to clarify affairs in Italy prior to his death. Otto died soon after the appointment ofPope Benedict VI in 973. In 974 Benedict was imprisoned in theCastel Sant'Angelo, the stronghold of theCrescentii family. When Otto II sent an imperial representative, Count Sicco, to secure his release,Crescentius I and Cardinal-Deacon Franco Ferrucci, who would subsequently becomeBoniface VII, anantipope, had Benedict murdered while still in prison.[4]
Following his coronation, a rift developed between Otto II and his mother, Empress Adelaide. From the death of Otto the Great until Easter 974, the dowager empress accompanied the emperor at all times, traveling throughout the Empire with him. However, Adelaide and Theophanu each mistrusted the influence the other held over Otto, causing friction within the household. A final meeting between Otto II and Adelaide was arranged shortly beforePentecost in 978, but a peaceful outcome was not achieved, forcing Adelaide to retire toBurgundy and to the protection of her brother KingConrad of Burgundy.
Otto II sought continued peace between himself and the descendants of his uncleHenry I, Duke of Bavaria. To ensure domestic tranquillity, Otto II, on 27 June 973, granted control over the imperial castles inBamberg andStegaurach to his cousin DukeHenry II of Bavaria. This was not enough for the young Bavarian duke, who wished to extend his influence in theDuchy of Swabia as his father had under Otto the Great. The death of BishopUlrich of Augsburg on 4 July, brought the conflict between the cousins to a head. Without consulting Otto, Henry named his cousinHenry as the new bishop of Augsburg. Augsburg was located on the western side of the Swabian-Bavarian border, the territory of Henry's brother-in-law DukeBurchard III of Swabia. Henry's actions in naming a bishop in a duchy not his own and without Imperial direction brought him into conflict with both Otto and Burchard. Not desiring civil war, Otto, on 22 September 973,invested Henry as bishop.
On 12 November 973, Burchard died with no heir: his union toHedwig, sister of Henry, had produced no children. With no clear successor, Henry demanded that Otto name him as the newduke of Swabia. The emperor sensed the far-reaching ambitions of his cousin and denied his request. Instead, Otto named as duke his nephewOtto, son of his half-brother, Liudolf, who had once been duke of Swabia. Prior to this appointment, Otto had been a long-time opponent of Henry's expanding influence in Swabia. By naming the son of his half-brother instead of his cousin, Otto reinforced his father's policy of appointing close family members to key posts throughout the Empire. This appointment elevated the descendants of Otto the Great above other kin in the selection process, further dividing Otto II and Henry II.
The appointment of the young Otto as duke of Swabia was taken by Henry as an assault on his claim to the Imperial throne and a slight to his honor.[3] He and his advisor, BishopAbraham of Freising, conspired with theduke of Poland,Mieszko I, and theduke of Bohemia,Boleslaus II, against Otto II in 974. While the historical sources do not describe the goals of the conspirators, Henry II likely intended to restore his honor and to ensure his position as the second most influential man in the Empire. Upon hearing of the conspiracy, Poppo, thebishop of Würzburg, demanded that Henry and his followers submit to Otto II or faceexcommunication. Otto the Great's efforts to consolidate the Church under Imperial control had made this type of action normal. Henry and his followers complied and submitted to Otto II before armed conflict broke out. Otto II, however, severely punished the conspirators: Henry was imprisoned atIngelheim and Bishop Abraham atCorvey.
By 976, Henry had returned to Bavaria. Whether Otto released him from prison or he escaped is not known for certain. Upon his return, Henry openly rebelled against Otto, claiming rulership over the Empire for himself. Henry mobilized the Saxon nobility against Otto. In particular, Henry had strong connections to MargraveGunther of Merseburg, CountEgbert the One-Eyed, andDietrich I of Wettin, who were all displeased with Otto's lack of adherence to Saxon tradition. In response to the rebellion, Otto stripped Henry of his duchy and had him excommunicated. Otto then marched his army south to Bavaria and laid siege toRegensburg, Henry's stronghold. Otto's army eventually broke through the city's defenses, forcing Henry to flee to Bohemia.
The Duchy of Carinthia (orange) was created by Otto II from confiscated territory of the Duchy of Bavaria (purple)
With Henry deposed, in July 976 Otto issued far-reaching edicts on the reorganization of the southern German duchies. He reduced the size ofDuchy of Bavaria by almost a third. From the excised Bavarian territory, Otto established theDuchy of Carinthia in southern Germany. By depriving Bavaria of theMarch of Verona, Otto considerably reduced the influence of the Bavarian dukes in northern Italy and in general Imperial policy regarding Italy. Otto gave the diminished Duchy of Bavaria to his nephew Otto, the duke of Swabia,[3] and appointedHenry III, son of the former Bavarian DukeBerthold, as duke of Carinthia. These appointments continued his policy of appointing individuals who had no political links to Otto the Great, including those who had even rebelled against him.
With matters in southern Germany settled, Otto II turned his attention to defeating and capturing Henry. After a failed first invasion into Bohemia, Otto marched to Bohemia a second time in August 977. While in Bohemia,a revolt broke out in Bavaria. The bishop of Augsburg and the newly appointed Carinthian duke joined Henry in rebellion, forcing Otto to return from Bohemia.[5] The emperor, aided by the duke of Swabia and Bavaria, met the rebels atPassau and, after a long siege, forced them into submission. Otto then brought the rebels before theImperial Diet inQuedlinburg on March 31, 978. Boleslaus was treated with honors and swore loyalty to Otto.[6] Mieszko recognized Otto's royal authority.[7] Otto imprisoned Henry under the custody of thebishop of Utrecht where he remained until Otto's death in 983.
While Otto the Great had pardoned rebellious family members for their crimes, Otto followed a different policy. Instead, Otto hoped to subordinate the Bavarian line of Ottonians to his authority. Henry's four-year-old son, also namedHenry, was sent toHildesheim to study for an ecclesiastical career. It appears Otto intended to end the Bavarian Ottonians' secular control of Bavaria. Under a new duke, Bavaria remained a remote area of the Empire. Otto only visited the duchy three times during his reign, in all cases accompanied by the military.
In 950, Otto the Great had subdued theKingdom of Denmark and forced the Danish KingGorm the Old to accept him as his overlord. Otto the Great also forced the king and his heir apparentHarald Bluetooth toconvert to Christianity. Under the reign of Otto the Great, Denmark fulfilled all its obligations and regularly paid tribute to the Germans. When Harald became king in 958, he expanded the control of his kingdom intoNorway, becoming king there in 970. With his newly obtained power, the young ruler was no longer willing to accept German supremacy over his kingdom. In summer 974, Harald rebelled against Otto II.[6] With the support of Norwegian troops, Harald was able to cross the Danish border into Germany, defeating the German forces stationed in the north. Otto II attacked Harald's forces, but the joint Danish-Norwegian army repelled the German army. In autumn, however, when the Norwegian allies sailed north to return to Norway, Otto II was able to counter Harald's advances at theDanevirke.
Before Henry II's civil war in southern Germany erupted, Otto II was faced with disputes in western Germany. The brothersReginar IV, Count of Mons, andLambert I, Count of Louvain, demanded that the Emperor restore their confiscated inheritance in theDuchy of Lorraine.[3] Years earlier in 958, Otto the Great banished their fatherReginar III, Count of Hainaut, toBohemia after he attempted a failed revolt. In 973, Otto II granted their request. With both Otto the Great and Count Reginar III dead, it appears Otto II desired a fresh start with the two sons. Lambert I and Reginar IV returned to Lorraine in 973 to reclaim their land by force. After an initial failure, the brothers attempted again in 976, this time with the support of KingLothar of France. To help calm the situation in the west, Otto II appointedCharles, his cousin and brother of Lothar, asDuke of Lower Lorraine. The same year, Otto II appointedEgbert as his Imperial Chancellor.
Otto II's support of Charles, however, infuriated the French king, who claimed the Duchy as his own territory.[3] Charles and Lothair were also feuding, with Charles being exiled from France over an infidelity allegation he had made against Lothair's wife. Charles fled to Otto II's court and paid homage to Otto II. In return, Otto II appointed Charles as Duke and promised to support his claim to the French throne. Soon after Otto II crushed Henry II's revolt in the south, the Emperor and his wifeTheophanu returned to the old capital ofAachen inLorraine. With the Imperial family near the French border, Lothair invaded Lorraine and marched on Aachen.[8] With the French army in sight, Otto II and Theophanu fled toCologne and then to theDuchy of Saxony. Upon hearing of the French invasion, Otto II's motherAdelaide of Italy, who was Lothair's mother-in-law, sided with Lothair over her own son and moved to the court of her brotherKing Conrad ofBurgundy.[6] After occupying Aachen for five days, Lothair returned to France after symbolically disgracing the city.
Otto II convened the Imperial Diet in mid-July atDortmund. There, Otto II declared war against France and prepared his army to march west. In September 978, Otto II retaliated against Lothair by invading France with the aid of Charles.[citation needed] He met with little resistance on French territory,[9] devastating the land aroundRheims,Soissons, andLaon. Otto II then had Charles crowned as King of the Franks byTheodoric I, Bishop of Metz. Lothair then fled to the French capital of Paris and was there besieged by Otto II and Charles. Sickness among his troops brought on by winter and a French relief army underHugh Capet forced Otto II and Charles to lift the siege on November 30, and to return to Germany. On the journey back to Germany, Otto'srearguard was attacked and destroyed by French forces, with their supplies being captured.[8] Despite neither side obtaining a clear victory, Otto II felt his honor was sufficiently restored and opened peace negotiations with the French King. Peace was finally concluded between Otto II and Lothair in 980: in return for renouncing his claims on Lorraine, Otto II would recognize Lothair's sonLouis V as the rightful heir to the French throne.[8]
With peace concluded, Otto II returned to Aachen to celebratePentecost, and then moved towardsNijmegen. During the journey, in late June or early July 980, the Empress Theophanu gave birth to the Imperial couple's only son:Otto III.
With his rule north of the Alps secured and with the birth of his heir, Otto II shifted his focus to Italy. The situation south of the Alps was chaotic.Pope Benedict VI, who had been appointed by Otto I, had been imprisoned by the Romans inCastel Sant'Angelo. When Otto II sent an imperial representative, Count Sicco, to secure his release,Crescentius I and Cardinal Franco Ferrucci had Benedict VI murdered while still in prison in 974.[4][10] Cardinal Franco Ferrucci then crowned himself as Benedict VI's successor, becomingAntipopeBoniface VII. A popular revolt, however, forced Boniface VII to flee toConstantinople, taking a vast treasure with him.[11] In October 974, under the direction of Count Sicco, thebishop of Sutri was elected Pope asPope Benedict VII.[10] Boniface VII was then summarilyexcommunicated for his unsuccessful attempt to take the papacy.
In 979 Benedict VII's position as ruler of Rome was threatened, forcing the Pope to withdraw from and seek the aid of the Emperor. Accepting the Pope's call for aid, Otto II and Theophanu, along with their infant sonOtto III, prepared for a march south across the Alps. Otto II appointedWilligis, theArchbishop of Mainz, to serve as his regent over Germany.
In October 980 the Imperial court arrived inChiavenna and received its first Italian delegations. Otto II arrived in Italy atPavia on December 5, 980. In Pavia, Otto II and his mother, thedowager empressAdelaide of Italy, were reconciled after years of being apart. Before the imperial family celebrated Christmas together inRavenna,[12] Otto II received theIron Crown of Lombardy as theKing of Italy.[13] Following the New Year, Otto II led his Imperial court to Rome, reaching the city on February 9, 981, where the Emperor restored Pope Benedict VII to his papal throne without difficulty. In Rome, Otto II held a magnificent court ceremony to mark Easter.[12] The imperial family was joined by Otto II's sisterMatilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg, KingConrad of Burgundy and his wifeMatilda of France, DukeHugh Capet of France,Duke Otto of Swabia and Bavaria, and other high secular and religious officials from Germany, Italy and France.
Otto II proceeded to hold court in Rome, making the city his Imperial capital, where he received princes and nobles from all parts of western Europe.[9]
Territory of the Venetian Republic (in red) shortly after Otto II's reign.
The relationship between the Empire and theRepublic of Venice was readdressed during Otto II's reign. In 966, TheDoge of VenicePietro IV marriedWaldrada of Tuscany, a second cousin of Otto II. The marriage brought the Empire and Venice into close relationship, with Otto I, in 967, granting a series of commercial agreements to Venice in general and to Pietro IV's family in particular. These agreements strengthened Venice's tie to the Western Empire, which greatly angered theByzantine EmperorJohn I Tzimisces as Venice controlled all sea trade betweenWestern Europe and the ByzantineLevant in the East.
Otto I's military protection of Pietro IV ensured his hold over power in Venice despite his autocratic tendencies over the republican city. In 973, however, Otto I died. With Otto II busy suppressingrevolts in Germany, the Venetians opposed to Pietro IV found their opportunity to depose him. Imprisoning the Doge within his palace, the Venetian nobles set fire to the building. However, the fire soon spread toSaint Mark's Basilica, resulting in the greater part of the city being burnt. The Doge and his son, also named Pietro, were killed in the blaze, but their bodies were later recovered and respectfully buried. Pietro IV's son by the first marriage, Vitale CandianoPatriarch of Grado survived, as well as his namesakeVitale Candiano, presumably the son of Petro, fled to Otto II's court inSaxony with plans to depose the new pro-Byzantine Doge,Pietro I Orseolo.
Pietro I Orselo's conciliating policy towards the Empire was ineffective. After having ruled Venice for about two years, Pietro I voluntarily abdicated to become amonk, allowing the pro-Ottonian Vitale to return to Venice as Doge in 978, restoring the city's friendly relationship with the Empire. However, Vitale's reign was short (less than two years) and he too abdicated to become a monk. With the position vacant, the pro-ByzantineTribuno Memmo became the new Doge in 979. With the change in leadership, Otto II was reluctant to renew the city's commercial agreements which his father had previously granted to the city. It was only after the intervention of Otto II's mother, the dowager empressAdelaide of Italy, that the Emperor renewed the agreements.
Violence erupted in Venice during 980 due to tensions between the pro-Ottonian Coloprini family and the pro-ByzantineMorosini family. The Coloprini pleaded with the Emperor for support. Seeing an opportunity to fully incorporate Venice into the Empire, Otto II agreed. Upon arriving in Italy in 981, Otto II immediately imposed atrade embargo against the island republic. When the initial embargo showed little effect on Venice, Otto II imposed a second embargo in 983 which dealt considerable damage to the Venetian economy. The effects were disastrous enough to cause the ruling Venetian families to surrender to Otto II, but Otto II's untimely death that year prevented him from capitalizing on his victory. The Chronicle ofJohn the Deacon claims that the early death is the punishment for persecuting the Venetians, asThere is no doubt that, as a monk blessed with the prophetic spirit had revealed to him on the instructions of an angel, he ran into sudden death because he had persecuted the Venetians.
Otto II followed the policy of his father in expanding the importance of the Church in his Empire, in particular the importance ofmonasticism andmonasteries. The Church and its organs served as a supporting and stabilizing factor in the Empire's structure. To fulfill these tasks, Otto II strengthened the legal integrity and economic independence of the bishops from the secular nobility. TheOttonians had a particular religious interest inMemleben as both Otto II's fatherOtto I and grandfatherHenry I had died there. Otto II and his wife Theophanu enhanced the spiritual importance of the city by establishing aBenedictineImperial abbey there: theMemleben Abbey. Within a short time, the Memleben Abbey had become one of the richest and most influential of theImperial abbeys. These measures and the unusual size of the abbey perhaps suggest that Memleben may have been intended as anImperial Mausoleum for the Ottonians.[14]
Following the suppression ofHenry II'srebellion, Otto II used the Empire's monasteries as the location for thetreason trials. While his father had founded only one monastery (Otto I later replaced the abbey with theCathedral of Magdeburg) during his 37-year reign, Otto II established at least four monasteries:Memleben,Tegernsee,Bergen, andArneburg. Monasticism became a key part of Otto II's Imperial policy, entrusting the abbots with key political functions.
Otto II employed monks among his top political advisers, includingEkkehard I andMajolus of Cluny. One of the most important such monks was John Philagathus (the futureAntipope John XVI). OfGreek descent, John was the personalchaplain of Otto II's wifeTheophanu, accompanying her when she traveled from Constantinople to marry Otto II.[15] Otto II appointed him as his Imperial Chancellor from 980 to 982, as well as abbot ofNonantola Abbey. Following Otto II's death in 983, Theophanu, as her sonOtto III's regent, would name John as Otto III's tutor. She would later appoint John as thebishop of Piacenza, and would send him to Constantinople to arrange for a marriage between Otto III and a Byzantine princess.
In regard to his Italian policy, Otto II went beyond the goals of his father. Not satisfied with the territorial gains made under Otto I, Otto II's policy was based not only on securing his power in Rome and cooperating with the Papacy, but also on gaining absolute dominion over the whole of Italy. Influenced by his wife, who was hostile to the return of theMacedonian Dynasty in the shape ofByzantine EmperorBasil II after the assassination ofJohn I Tzimisces, Otto II was persuaded to annex Byzantine-controlled southern Italy.[3] However, this policy necessarily meant war not only with theByzantine Empire but with theMuslimFatimid Caliphate, which claimed southern Italy as within its sphere of influence.
The Ottonians' chief lieutenant in central and southern Italy had long been theLombard leaderPandulf Ironhead. Originally appointed byOtto I as Prince ofBenevento andCapua in 961, Pandulf waged war against the Byzantines and expanded Ottonian control to include theDuchy of Spoleto in 967. The following year, under Otto II, Pandulf added thePrincipality of Salerno to the Empire. His campaigns under Otto I and Otto II incorporated all three of the southern Lombard principalities - Benevento, Capua, and Salerno - into theHoly Roman Empire. Asvassal of Otto II, Pandulf ruled a large bloc of territories stretching as far north as Tuscany and as far south as theGulf of Taranto.[16]
Pandulf's death in 981 deprived Otto II of one of his primary lieutenants. Pandulf's lands were partitioned among his sons, though further quarrels between the local Lombard princes soon followed.[13] Pandulf's older sonLandulf IV received Capua and Benevento while his younger sonPandulf II received Salerno. Upon hearing of Pandulf's death, Otto II, ruling from Rome, traveled south to installThrasimund IV as Duke of Spoleto. Then, Pandulf's nephewPandulf II was given Benevento when Otto II partitioned Landulf IV's territory, with Landulf IV keeping Capua. Finally, DukeManso I of Amalfi deposed Pandulf II of Salerno in 982.
By 982 the entire area once ruled by Pandulf had collapsed, weakening Otto II's position against the Byzantines. The Byzantines still claimed sovereignty over the Lombard principalities, and the lack of a single leader to prevent their advances into Lombard territory allowed the Byzantines to make inroads further north. Otto II attempted on several occasions to reunify the Lombard principalities politically and ecclesiastically into his Empire after Pandulf's death. Though he unsuccessfully besieged Manso I in Salerno, Otto II ultimately obtained the recognition of his authority from all the Lombard principalities.
Italy around 1000, shortly after Otto II's death in 983.
With his authority reestablished over the Lombard princes, Otto II turned his attention towards the threat from Muslim Sicily. Since the 960s the island had been underMuslim rule as theEmirate of Sicily, a state of theFatimid Caliphate. The rulingKalbid dynasty had conducted raids against Imperial territories in southern Italy. The death of Pandulf in 981 allowed the Sicilian EmirAbu al-Qasim to increase his raids, hitting targets inApulia andCalabria. As early as 980 Otto II demanded a fleet from the city ofPisa to help him carry out his war in southern Italy,[17] and in September 981 he marched into southern Italy.[9] Needing allies in his campaign against the Muslims and the Byzantine Empire, Otto II reconciled with Amalfian Duke Manso I, granting Imperial recognition of his rule over Salerno.
Otto II's troops marched on Byzantine-controlled Apulia in January 982 with the purpose of annexing the territory into his Empire.[18] Otto II's march caused theByzantine Empire to seek an alliance with Muslim Sicily in order to hold on to its southern Italian possessions.[citation needed] Otto's army besieged and captured the Byzantine city ofTaranto, the administrative center of Apulia, in March 982.[11] After celebratingEaster in Taranto, Otto II moved his army westward, defeating a Muslim army in early July.[19] Emir Abu al-Qasim, who had declared a Holy War (jihad) against Otto, retreated when he noticed the unexpected strength of Otto II's troops when the latter was not far fromRossano Calabro. Informed of the Muslim retreat, Otto II left his wifeTheophanu and young sonOtto III (along with the Imperial treasury) in the city and marched his army to pursue the Muslim force.
Unable to flee back to his stronghold in Sicily due to an Ottonian naval blockade, al-Qasim faced Otto's army in what has been come to be known as theBattle of Stilo south of Crotone atCape Colonna on July 14, 982. After a violent clash, a corps of Otto II's heavy cavalry destroyed the Muslim center and pushed towards al-Qasim's guards, with the Emir killed during the charge.[20] Despite the Emir's death, the Muslim troops did not flee the battlefield but regrouped and managed to surround the Imperial soldiers, slaughtering many of them and inflicting a severe defeat upon the Emperor.[3] According to the Muslim historianIbn al-Athir, Imperial casualties numbered around 4,000.Landulf IV of Benevento andPandulf II of Salerno, BishopHenry I of Augsburg, MargraveGunther of Merseburg, theAbbot of Fulda, and numerous other Imperial officials were among the battle's casualties.
The Imperial defeat shocked the political makeup ofSouthern Italy. With two Lombard princes dead, thePrincipalities of Capua and theBenevento passed to younger branches of theLandulfid family. Though the Muslim troops were forced to retreat to Sicily after their victory, the Muslims remained a presence in southern Italy, harassing the Byzantines and Lombards. This Ottonian defeat, the worst in the history of the Empire at the time, greatly weakened Imperial power in southern Italy. The Byzantines joined forces with the Muslims and regained possession of Apulia from Ottonian forces.
The defeat at Stilo forced Otto II to flee north to Rome.[20] He then held anImperial Diet atVerona onPentecost 983.[19] He sent his nephewOtto I, Duke of Swabia and Bavaria, back to Germany with news of the defeat and to call the German nobles to the assembly, but his emissary dieden route on November 1, 982, inLucca. News of the battle did cross the Alps, however, reaching as far asWessex inEngland, signifying the magnitude of the defeat. DukeBernard I of Saxony was heading south for the assembly whenDanishViking raids forced him to return to face the threat.
At the assembly, Otto II appointedConrad (a distant relative of Otto II) andHenry III as the new Dukes ofSwabia andBavaria respectively. Henry III had previously been exiled by Otto II following his defeat as part of atwo-year revolt against Otto II's rule. The defeat at Stilo cost the Empire many nobles, forcing Otto II to end Henry's banishment in order to stabilize domestic affairs in Germany while he campaigned against the Muslims and Byzantines in southern Italy. Also, the appointment of Conrad I allowed theHouse of the Conradines to return to power in Swabia for the first time since 948. Otto II and the assembled nobles agreed on a strategy of naval blockade and economic warfare until reinforcements from Germany could arrive. Otto II then prepared for a new campaign against the Muslims[3] and obtained a settlement with theRepublic of Venice, whose assistance he needed following the destruction of his army at Stilo. However, the death of Otto II the next year and the resulting civil war prevented the Empire from appropriately responding to the defeat.
The most important action taken by Otto II at the assembly, however, was to securethe "election" of his sonOtto III, who was then only three years old, asKing of Germany andheir apparent to the Imperial throne. Otto III thus became the only German king elected south of the Alps. The exact reason for this unusual procedure has been lost to history. It is possible that the conditions in southern Italy following the defeat required Otto II to act quickly in designating an Imperial heir to ensure the Empire's future. It is also conceivable, however, that holding the election in Italy was a deliberate choice on the part of Otto II in order to demonstrate that Italy was an equal part of the Empire to Germany. His election secured, Otto III and his mother, the EmpressTheophanu, traveled north across the Alps heading forAachen, the traditional coronation site for the Ottonians, in order for Otto III to be officially crowned as king. Otto II stayed in Italy to further address his military campaigns.
The Northern March (outlined in red) between theBillung March in the north and theSaxon Eastern March (March of Lusatia) in the south. Both the Billung March and the North March were lost following the Great Slav Rising.
Around the year 982, Imperial authority in Slavic territory extended as far east as theLusatian Neisse River and as far south as theOre Mountains. Following the defeat of Otto II at Stilo in 983, theLutici Federation ofPolabian Slavs revolted against their German overlords, sparking theGreat Slav Rising (Slawenaufstand). The Polabian Slavs destroyed the bishoprics ofHavelberg andBrandenburg.[21] According to the German chronicler BishopThietmar of Merseburg, the decades-long forcedGermanization andChristianization of the Slavs associated with these two churches was the reason for their destruction. Thietmar blames the uprising on maltreatment of the Slavs by the Germans: "Warriors, who used to be our servants, now free as a consequence of our injustices."[22] In theObotrite territories along theElbe River, the Luticians initiated a revolt aimed at the abolition of feudal rule and Christianity,[21] drawing upon considerable support by the Obodrite populace and their leaderMstivoj.[23] In part, the Obodrite revolt was successful: The princely family, though in part remaining Christian, dissolved Christian institutions.[23]
Soldiers from theNorthern March, theMarch of Meissen, and theMarch of Lusatia, as well as from theBishop of Halberstadt and theArchbishop of Magdeburg, joined forces to defeat the Slavs nearStendal.[24] Nevertheless, the Empire was forced to withdraw to the western banks of the Elbe river. The successes of the Empire's Christianization policy towards the Slavs were nullified, and political control over theBillung March and theNorthern March (territories east of the Elbe) was lost. In the decade since his death, Otto I's life work of converting the Slavs was undone. The Slavic territories east of the Elbe would remain pagan for over a century before further missionary work resumed: it would not be until the 12th century that the churches ofHavelberg andBrandenburg would be reestablished.
TheDanes took advantage of the Slavic revolt and invaded theMarch of Schleswig along the Empire's northern border while theSorb Slavs invaded and conquered theMarch of Zeitz from the Saxons.[19]
In July 983,Pope Benedict VII, a longtime Ottonian supporter, died of natural causes after having reigned for almost ten years. Otto II returned to Rome in September to name a new pope, selecting thebishop of Pavia, Pietro Canepanova (who reigned asPope John XIV), in November or early December.[25] While Otto II was in Rome, amalaria outbreak in central Italy prevented the resumption of military activity in southern Italy. The outbreak ultimately led to the death of the Emperor himself in his palace at Rome on December 7, 983, at the age of 28, after having reigned for just over a decade.[3] Otto II's money and possessions were divided among the Catholic Church, the poor of the Empire, his motherAdelaide and sisterMatilda, and those nobles loyal to him. Otto II was then buried in the atrium ofSt. Peter's Basilica,[9] the only Holy Roman emperor to be buried in St Peter's.[26]
Otto II's three-year-old sonOtto III was crowned asking of Germany inAachen on Christmas Day in 983, three weeks after his father's death. Otto III was crowned byWilligis, thearchbishop of Mainz, and John, theArchbishop of Ravenna.[27] News of Otto II's death first reached Germany after Otto III's coronation.[27] The unresolved problems in southern Italy and the Slavic uprising on the Empire's eastern border made the Empire's political situation extremely unstable. The arrival of a minor on the Imperial throne threw the Empire into confusion, allowing Otto III's mother, the Byzantine PrincessTheophanu, to reign as hisregent.[28]
In 976, Otto had deposed his cousin Henry as duke of Bavaria and imprisoned him. In early 984, Henry escaped from his imprisonment. He seized the infant Otto III and, as a member of the ruling dynasty, claimed the regency of the Empire for himself.[28] Henry eventually went so far as to claim the German throne outright, obtaining the allegiance of the dukes of Poland and Bohemia.[29] Henry 's claims were supported byArchbishop Egbert of Trier,Archbishop Gisilher of Magdeburg, and BishopDietrich I of Metz.[29] Otto III's right to the throne, however, was supported by ArchbishopWilligis of Mainz and the dukes ofSaxony,Bavaria, andSwabia.[28] The threat of war from Willigis and Conrad of Swabia forced Henry to relinquish Otto III on June 29, 984 and to respect the regency of Empress Theophanu.[29]
The early death of Otto II and the ensuing events proved to be a serious test for the Empire. Despite having a child under the regency of his mother as a ruler, the structure established by Otto the Great remained strong as most of the Empire's most powerful officials stayed loyal to the Imperial system.
Otto was a man of small stature, by nature brave and impulsive, and by training an accomplished knight. He was generous to the church and aided the spread of Christianity in many ways.[9] According to one of the chroniclers of the time, he was given the epithet of the "Red" when in 981 he invited the most troublesome of the Roman families to a banquet, and proceeded to butcher them at dinner.[10] More sympathetic chroniclers said that it was due to his reddish complexion.[citation needed] In fact, Otto is much more likely to have inherited the epithet from his half-uncleConrad the Red, who died the year he was born and from whom he is also likely to have inherited some property.
Jesus blesses the marriage of Otto (left) andTheophanu (right) on anivory book cover, dated to AD 982/3
Otto II was a member of theOttonian dynasty, which ruled Germany (and later the Holy Roman Empire) from 919 to 1024. In relation to the other members of his dynasty, Otto II was the grandson ofHenry I, son ofOtto I, father ofOtto III, and a first-cousin once removed toHenry II.
Otto II had only one known wife. On 14 April 972, Otto II marriedTheophanu,[30] aByzantine princess of thePhokas family who was the cousin of reigning Byzantine EmperorJohn I Tzimiskes. The two had at least five children:
^Wickham, Chris. Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society 400–1000. MacMillan Press: 1981, p. 156, "from Ancona to the fringes of Calabria"
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