Dubai is governed as an absolute monarchy by theAl Maktoum family, who have ruled since 1833. It operates within the federal structure of the UAE, with the Ruler of Dubai also serving as the Vice President and Prime Minister of the UAE.
The emirate and the coterminous city is subdivided into nine numbered sectors.[6]
Dubai is divided into 9 sectors of which 1 to 6 are urban and 7 to 9 are rural. In numbers of 2007: 1.511.423 urban, 18.369 rural, 1.529.792 total. The sectors are subdivided into 224communities. In other sources, the sectors and communities are called districts and subdistricts. The exclave of Hatta is a community in Sector 8.
Dubai by CopernicusSentinel-2 satellite in false-colour in 2024
In the early 19th century, the coastal township of Dubai was located within the territorial lands of theBani Yas tribe, however Dubai was also on the borderlands near the control of the powerfulAl Qasimi clan. This caused both groups to assert authority over the town.[7]: 13
In the 19th century, pearls were the main commodity of the region, with buyers fromMumbai, commerce peaked in 1897.[7]: 26
In 1901,Maktoum bin Hasher Al Maktoum established Dubai as a free port with no taxation on imports or exports and also gave merchants parcels of land and guarantees of protection and tolerance. These policies saw a movement of merchants not only directly fromLingeh,[8] but also those who had settled inRas Al Khaimah andSharjah (which had historical links with Lingeh through theAl Qawasim tribe) to Dubai. An indicator of the growing importance of Dubai can be gained from the movements of the steamer of the Bombay and Persia Steam Navigation Company, which from 1899 to 1901 paid five visits annually to Dubai. In 1902, the company's vessels made 21 visits to Dubai and from 1904 on,[9] the steamers called fortnightly – in 1906, trading 70,000 tonnes of cargo.[10] The frequency of these vessels helped to accelerate Dubai's role as an emerging port and trading hub of preference. British historian John Lorimer noted the transfer of merchants from Lingeh "bids fair to become complete and permanent",[8] and also that the town had by 1906 supplanted Lingeh as the chief entrepôt of the Trucial States. By 1908, Dubai was home to a population of some 10,000 people.[7]: 21–23
By the 1930s and 1940s, the pearl business crashed due tocultured pearls from Japan. The economy crashed which triggered a famine.[7]: 28 Hopes were reignited when in 1937, an oil exploration contract was signed which guaranteedroyalty rights for Dubai and concessionary payments to SheikhSaeed bin Maktoum. However, due toWorld War II, oil would not be struck until 1966 at theFateh oil field.[7]: 36–37
In December 1971, the emirates united to form theUnited Arab Emirates, thus ending their status as British Protectorates.[11][12]
Dubai Police operates a fleet ofexotic cars in addition to the standard vehicles.
TheDubai Police Force, founded in 1956 in theNaif area, has law-enforcement jurisdiction over the emirate. The force is under the direct command of Mohammed bin Rashid al Maktoum.[20] Dubai andRas al Khaimah are the only emirates that do not conform to the federal judicial system of the United Arab Emirates.[21] The emirate's judicial courts comprise the Court of First Instance, the Court of Appeal, and the Court of Cassation. The Court of First Instance consists of the Civil Court, which hears all civil claims; the Criminal Court, which hears claims originating from police complaints; and theSharia Court, which is responsible for matters between Muslims. Non-Muslims do not appear before the Sharia Court. The Court of Cassation is the supreme court of the emirate and hears only disputes of law.[22] Alcohol sale and consumption, though legal, is regulated. Adult non-Muslims are allowed to consume alcohol in licensed venues, typically within hotels or at home with the possession of an alcohol license. Places other than hotels, clubs, and specially designated areas generally are not permitted to sell alcohol.[23] In 2024, Dubai authorities charged an Irish woman for consuming alcohol.[24][25]
Dubai is a notorious global centre and sanctuary for money launderers, drug lords, corrupt political figures, and sanctioned businesspeople.[27] It has been called a 'gangster's paradise'.[28] This includes money laundering by major crime syndicates.
A complex range of factors has enabled this state of affairs: the lack of extradition treaties with many countries, banking secrecy, liberal visa policies, low taxes, a large expatriate community in which shady figures are easily absorbed and welcomed, a non-transparent real estate market that readily enables money laundering, and not least, the monarchical dictatorship of the Maktoum family which facilitates it through deliberately lax legislation and policy.[29][30]
Examples include Amit Gupta, who bribed Nauru politicians in an attempt to stage a coup that would give him control of that island's mining rights[31] and Ahmed Al Hamza, a transnational crime figure and one of Melbourne's most powerful gangsters.[32]
Dubai's Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows, a 2020 report by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, stated: "Part of what underpins Dubai's prosperity is a steady stream of illicit proceeds borne from corruption and crime...Meanwhile, both Emirati leaders and the international community continue to turn a blind eye to the problematic behaviours, administrative loopholes, and weak enforcement practices that make Dubai a globally attractive destination for dirty money."[33]
Dubai is an investment base for the international drug trade byBalkan criminal groups, while Belgian criminals are notably active in its real estate market on behalf of Russian oligarchs and politicians, who seek to launder their ill-gotten gains.[30] In 2022, a data leak obtained by the U.S.Center for Advanced Defense Studies (C4ADS) exposed some of this activity.[34] Dubai is under observation by theFinancial Action Task Force (FATF), which is likely to bring greater international scrutiny and pressure on its government.[33]
Ireland'sKinahan Cartel had been operating from Dubai, which was becoming a haven for organised crime gangs. The founder of the cartel isChristy Kinahan, and his sons areDaniel and Christopher Kinahan. Although they are regular visitors to Dubai, their exact whereabouts remain unknown. The crime group maintains connections with powerful Emirati families and the regime.[35] Using their Emirati partners, the Kinahan family has established multiple companies in the Emirates to trade in clothing, textiles, and food, along with management in aviation consultancies in free zones.[36] With Dubai becoming a refuge for criminals, the Kinahan cartel held regular meetings with their criminal associates in the city.[37] The US, UK, and Europol targeted the organised crime group and imposed sanctions on the Kinahan family and seven of their associates.[38][39] On 11 October 2024,Interpol issued a red notice against a cartel member, Sean McGovern, who was arrested by Dubai police.[40] The Kinahan cartel was planning an escape from the Emirates, in case of an extradition request from Ireland. The group had a detailed plan to move to Russia.[41][42] On 21 October, an extradition treaty was signed between Ireland and the UAE.[43]
Latifa, daughter ofDubai's ruler, escaped Dubai in February 2018 but was captured in the Indian Ocean.[44]
Companies in Dubai have been criticised in the past for human rights violations against labourers.[45] Some of the 250,000 foreign labourers in the city have been alleged to live in conditionsHuman Rights Watch has called "less than humane".[46][47] The mistreatment of foreign workers is a subject of the 2009 documentarySlaves in Dubai.[48] The Dubai government has denied labour injustices and said that Human Rights Watch's accusations are "misguided". The filmmaker explained in interviews how it was necessary to go undercover to avoid discovery by the authorities, who impose high fines on reporters attempting to document human rights abuses, including the conditions of construction workers.
In March 2006, the government announced steps to allow construction unions. UAE labour minister Ali al-Kaabi said, "Labourers will be allowed to form unions."[49] As of 2020, the federal public prosecution has clarified that "it is an offense when at least three public employees collectively leave work or one of the duties to achieve an unlawful purpose. Each employee will be punished with not less than 6 months in prison and not more than a year, as the imprisonment will be for leaving the job or duties that affect the health or the security of the people or affect other public services of public benefit." Any act of spreading discord among employees is punishable by imprisonment, and in all cases, foreigners will be deported.[50]
Homosexual acts are illegal under UAE law.[51]Freedom of speech in Dubai is limited, with both residents and citizens facing severe sanctions for criticizing the royal family or local laws and culture.[52] Some of the labourers lured by the higher pay available in Dubai are victims of human trafficking or forced labour and some women are forced into the growing sex trade in Dubai, a centre of human trafficking and prostitution.[53]
Defamation on social media is a punishable offence in Dubai with fines of up to half a million dirhams and a jail term of up to 2 years. In 2020, three Sri Lankan expats were fined 500,000dirhams (US$136,000) each for posting defamatory Islamophobic Facebook posts.[54]
A victim of domestic violence, Tori Towey faced abuse since getting married in March 2024. She lived in Dubai and was working as a flight attendant forEmirates Airlines. When she first sought help in Dubai, Towey was mocked by an Emirati police officer. The authorities charged her with attempting suicide and illegal consumption of alcohol and banned her from leaving Dubai. Towey was assisted by Radha Sterling, who questioned Ireland's travel advice, claiming it is "insufficient" to help visitors, particularly women, understand how to approach officials in the UAE. Sterling said it is difficult to explain to foreign travellers how they can stay safe in the Emirates.[55]
^Liam Collins, 'Gangsters' paradise – Dubai's finely spun web starts to unravel', Irish Independent, 21 February 2021;[1]Archived 9 March 2024 at theWayback Machine
^Dubai's Golden Sands, Organised Crime and Corruption Reporting Project (OCCRP), 12 June 2018;[2]
^abChristian Baghai, 'How Dubai Became a Safe Haven for Europe's Most Wanted Criminals', Medium, 28 December 2023
^'Nick McKenzie, Michael Bachelard, 'The man who tried to buy a country', The Age, 9 March 2024;[3]Archived 9 March 2024 at theWayback Machine
^One of Melbourne's most powerful gangsters lives half a world away,HeraldSun, 8 September 2023;[4]
^abMatthew T. Page, Vodi Vittori, 'Dubai's Role in Facilitating Corruption and Global Illicit Financial Flows', 7 July 2020;[5]
^Matthew Kupfer, Eiliv Frich Flydal, 'Dubai Uncovered: Data Leak Exposes How Criminals, Officials, and Sanctioned Politicians Poured Money Into Dubai Real Estate', Organised Crime and Corruption Reporting Project (OCCRP), 3 May 2022;[6]Archived 2 January 2020 at theWayback Machine
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