^Aguinaldo ran for president in1935 under the ticket of theNational Socialist Party,[5] but in opening his campaign he disavowed association with any political party.[6]
Emilio Aguinaldo was born on March 22, 1869[g] in Cavite el Viejo (present-dayKawit) in the province ofCavite to Carlos Aguinaldo y Jamir andTrinidad Villanueva,[f] a couple that had eight children, the seventh of whom was Emilio. He was baptized and raised inRoman Catholicism.[18] The Aguinaldo family was quite well-to-do as his father, Carlos Aguinaldo, was the community's appointedGobernadorcillo (municipal governor) in theSpanishViceregal administration.[19] He studied atColegio de San Juan de Letran, but could not finish his studies due to an outbreak ofcholera in 1882. On April 30th, 1888, he entered the lottery of the Spanish auxiliary conscription with number 221.[20]
He became acabeza de barangay in 1893, before theMaura Law called for the reorganization of local governments. At the age of 25, Aguinaldo became Cavite el Viejo's firstGobernadorcillo Capitan Municipal (municipal governor-captain) while he was on a business trip inMindoro.
The seal of Emilio Aguinaldo as War Chief of theMagdalo factionAguinaldo in military uniformPresident Aguinaldo atMalolos,Bulacan wearing theRayadillo uniform and in horseback, with the Aguirre sword, the trophy ofBattle of Imus. Circa 1898.
On January 1, 1895, Aguinaldo became aFreemason, joining Pilar Lodge No. 203, Imus, Cavite by the codename "Colon".[21]
On March 7, 1895, Santiago Alvarez, whose father was aCapitan Municipal (Mayor) ofNoveleta, encouraged Aguinaldo to join the "Katipunan", a secret organization led byAndrés Bonifacio that was dedicated to the expulsion of the Spanish and the independence of the Philippines through armed force.[22] Aguinaldo joined the organization and used thenom de guerreMagdalo in honor ofMary Magdalene. The local chapter of Katipunan in Cavite was established and namedSangguniang Magdalo, and Aguinaldo's cousinBaldomero Aguinaldo was appointed leader.[23][24]
The Katipunan-ledPhilippine Revolution against the Spanish began in the last week of August 1896 inSan Juan del Monte (now part ofMetro Manila).[25] However, Aguinaldo and other Cavite rebels initially refused to join in the offensive for lack of arms.[24] Bonifacio and other rebels were forced to resort toguerrilla warfare, but Aguinaldo and the Cavite rebels won major victories in carefully planned and well-timedset-piece battles and temporarily drove the Spanish out of their area.[24] On August 31, 1896, Aguinaldo started the assault by beginning as a skirmish to the full-blown revoltKawit Revolt. He marched with his army of bolomen to the town center of Kawit. Prior to the battle, Aguinaldo had strictly ordered his men not to kill anyone in his hometown. Upon his men's arrival at the town center, the guards, armed with Remingtons and unaware of the preceding events, were caught completely by surprise and surrendered immediately. The guns there were captured by the Katipuneros, and the revolt was a major success for Aguinaldo and his men. Later that afternoon, they raised theMagdalo flag at the town hall to a large crowd of people from Kawit that had assembled after it heard of the city's liberation.
The Magdalo faction of the Katipunan, which also operated in Cavite under Gen. Aguinaldo, usedflags similar to those used by the Magdiwang faction and featuring a white sun with a redbaybayin symbol forKa.
The symbol has recently been revived by a breakaway group of army officers to show the end of war with Spain after the peace agreement. The flag became the first official banner of the revolutionary forces and was blessed in a crowd celebrating at Imus. Aguinaldo referred to this flag in his proclamation of October 31, 1896: "Filipino people!! The hour has arrived to shed blood for the conquest of our liberty. Assemble and follow the flag of the Revolution – it stands for Liberty, Equality and Fraternity."[26]
In August 1896, as coordinated attacks broke out and sparked the revolution beginning in Manila. Aguinaldo marched from Kawit with 600 men and launched a series of skirmishes at Imus that eventually ended in open hostilities against Spanish troops stationed there. On September 1, with the aid of CaptainJose Tagle of Imus, they laid siege against Imus to draw the Spanish out. A Spanish relief column commanded by Brigadier-General Ernesto de Aguirre had been dispatched from Manila to aid the beleaguered Spanish defenders of Imus. Supported only by 100 troops and by cavalry, Aguirre gave the impression that he had been sent out to suppress a minor disturbance. Aguinaldo and his men counterattacked but suffered heavy losses that almost cost his own life. Despite the success, Aguirre did not press the attack, felt the inadequacy of his troops, and hastened back to Manila to get reinforcements. During the lull in the fighting, Aguinaldo's troops reorganized and prepared for another Spanish attack. On September 3, Aguirre came back with a much larger force of 3,000 men. When Spanish troops arrived at theIsabel II Bridge, they were fired upon by the concealed rebels. The Spanish force was routed, withdrawing in disorder with substantial casualties. Among the abandoned Spanish weapons was Aguirre's sword, which was carried by Aguinaldo in future battles.[27][failed verification]
Alarmed by a previous siege, led by General Aguinaldo in Imus, in September 1896, Governor-GeneralRamón Blanco y Erenas ordered the 4th Battalion of Cazadores from Spain to aid him in quelling the rebellion in Cavite. On November 3, 1896, the battalion arrived carrying a squadron of 1,328 men and some 55 officers.[28] Also, Blanco ordered about 8,000 men who recently came fromCuba and Spain to join in suppressing the rebellion. Prior to the land attacks, Spanish naval raids were conducted on the shores of Cavite, wherecannons bombarded the revolutionary fortifications in Bacoor, Noveleta, Binakayan, and Cavite Viejo. The most fortified locations in Noveleta were the Dalahican and Dagatan shores, defended byMagdiwang soldiers commanded by GeneralSantiago Alvarez, and the adjacent fishing village of Binakayan in Kawit was fortified byMagdalo under General Aguinaldo. Spanish naval operations were determined to crush the fortifications in these areas, mainly because the lake around Dalahican was strategic by connecting to the interior of Cavite. Apart from defending Binakayan, theMagdalo soldiers also kept the lower part of Dagatan up to Cavite's border nearManila province.[29] Between the barrios of Binakayan and Dalahican, the Spanish forces lost decisively since the Filipino rebels, led by Aguinaldo and Alvarez, routed them back toCavite Nuevo in which the remaining Spanish troops would eventually surrender. The successful defenses of Binakayan and Dalahican was considered to be the first major victory of the Filipinos over a colonial power.[citation needed]
Newly appointed Governor-GeneralCamilo de Polavieja, was now fully aware that the main weight of the revolution was in Cavite and so decided to launch a two-pronged assault to defeat the revolutionaries, led by Aguinaldo. He ordered GeneralJosé de Lachambre with a much bigger force to march againstSilang to take on theKatipuneros from the rear, and he would engage the Filipinos head on. On February 13, 1897, Aguinaldo ordered soldiers to plant dynamite along the bridge and to place pointed bamboo sticks in the river beds below the bridge. Several hours later, 12,000 Spaniards began to cross the bridge. The trap was sprung, and the dynamite was detonated, which killed several Spanish troops and injured many more. The rebels then emerged from the bushes, fought hand to hand, and repelled consecutive waves of enemy troops charging across the river.Edilberto Evangelista was shot in the head and died. Cavite Province gradually emerged as the Revolution's hotbed, and the Aguinaldo-ledKatipuneros had a string of victories there. After the battle, the demoralized Spanish soldiers retreated towards Muntinlupa.
Spanish Cavite offensive and Battle of Perez Dasmariñas
While Polavieja was poised to strike at Zapote, another Spanish contingent is marching towards Aguinaldo's rear. On February 15, 1897, the Spaniards launched the powerful Cavite offensive to drive and crush Filipino revolutionaries under Aguinaldo and hisMagdalo forces that held numerous victories against the Spanish in the early stages of the revolution. Renewed and fully equipped with 100 cannons, 23,000 Spanishcazadores forces under Major GeneralJose de Lachambre saw town after town fall back to the Crown. Starting the offensive at Pamplona, Cavite, and Bayungyungan, Batangas, Lachambre's men later marched deep into the heart of Aguinaldo's home province.[citation needed]
Having just won theBattle of Zapote Bridge, Aguinaldo turned his attention at the new Spanish threat and was determined to recapture most of Cavite. Aguinaldo decided to deploy his forces at Pasong Santol, a bottleneck of Perez Dasmariñas on the way to Imus, which rendered the Spanish immobile and served the revolutionaries by its natural defensive positions. On February 19, Silang fell to the Spanish juggernaut despite attempts by Filipino forces to defend and then to recover it. Nine days later, Spanish forces marched into Dasmariñas to reclaim the town. A week later, Spanish troops used artillery pieces well to attack again as they moved towards Aguinaldo's capital, Imus. Meanwhile, on March 22 at theTejeros Convention, Aguinaldo was votedin absentia as president of the reorganized revolutionary government. Colonel Vicente Riego de Dios was sent by the assembly to fetch Aguinaldo, who was in Pasong Santol. Aguinaldo refused to come andCrispulo Aguinaldo, his older brother, was sent to talk to him. Crispulo greeted and talked to his brother and explained his purpose, but Aguinaldo was hesitant to leave his post because of the pending attack of the Spanish in Dasmariñas. Crispulo took over Aguinaldo's leadership in the battle, which had been stalemated since March 7, and Aguinaldo traveled to San Francisco de Malabon (nowGeneral Trias, Cavite) to take his oath as president.[30]
Conflict within the ranks of the Katipunan factions, specifically between theMagdalo andMagdiwang, led to the Imus assembly in Cavite Province, presided over by Bonifacio.[31] The rebels of Cavite were rumored to have made overtures to establish a revolutionary government in place of the Katipunan.[32] Though Bonifacio already considered the Katipunan to be a government, he acquiesced and presided over aconvention held on March 22, 1897, in Tejeros, San Francisco de Malabon, Cavite. Aguinaldo was elected president, even though he was occupied with military matters in Imus and not in attendance.Mariano Trias was elected as vice-president,Artemio Ricarte as captain-general, Emiliano Riego de Dios as the director of war, andAndres Bonifacio as director of the interior. The results were questioned byDaniel Tirona for Bonifacio's qualifications for that position. Bonifacio was insulted and declared, "I, as chairman of this assembly, and as President of the Supreme Council of the Katipunan, as all of you do not deny, declare this assembly dissolved, and I annul all that has been approved and resolved."[33] Regardless of the nullification, Aguinaldo traveled surreptitiously to San Francisco de Malabon where, on the evening of March 23, he took an oath assuming the office to which he had been elected asGeneralissimo of the Philippine Islands.[34][30]
TheSpanish Army launched an attack that forced the revolutionary forces under Aguinaldo into a retreat. On June 24, 1897, Aguinaldo arrived at Biak-na-Bato,San Miguel, Bulacan, and established a headquarters there in what is now called "Aguinaldo Cave" inBiak-na-Bato National Park. In late October 1897, Aguinaldo convened an assembly of generals at Biak-na-Bato that decided to establish a constitutional republic. A constitution, patterned closely after the Cuban Constitution, was drawn up by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer and provided for the creation of a Supreme Council composed of a president, a vice president, a Secretary of War, and a Secretary of the Treasury. Aguinaldo was named president.[35]
Aguinaldo with the other revolutionaries on the Pact of Biak-na-Bato
In March 1897,Fernando Primo de Rivera, 1st Marquis of Estella, the SpanishGovernor-General of the Philippines, had been encouraging prominent Filipinos to contact Aguinaldo for a peaceful settlement of the conflict. On August 9, the Manila lawyerPedro Paterno met with Aguinaldo at Biak-na-Bato with a proposal for peace based on reforms and amnesty. In the succeeding months, Paterno conductedshuttle diplomacy, acting as an intermediary between de Rivera and Aguinaldo. On December 14–15, 1897, Aguinaldo signed thePact of Biak-na-Bato under which Aguinaldo effectively agreed to end hostilities and to dissolve his government in exchange for amnesty and "₱800,000 (Mexican)" (Aguinaldo's description of the $MXN800,000[h] amount) as an indemnity.[38][39] The documents were signed on December 14–15, 1897. On December 23, Aguinaldo and other revolutionary officials departed for Hong Kong to entervoluntary exile. MXN$400,000,[h] representing the first installment of the indemnity, was deposited into Hong Kong banks. In exile, Aguinaldo reorganized his revolutionary government into the "Hong Kong Junta" and enlarged it into the "Supreme Council of the Nation".[40]
Flag of theFirst Philippine Republic 1898–1901.Aguinaldo's Revolutionary Flag (obverse).Aguinaldo's Revolutionary Flag (reverse).
On April 25, theSpanish–American War began. The war mostly focused on Cuba, but theUS Navy'sAsiatic Squadron was in Hong Kong and, commanded byCommodoreGeorge Dewey, it sailed for the Philippines. On May 1, 1898, in theBattle of Manila Bay, the squadron engaged attacked and destroyed the Spanish Army and Navy's Pacific Squadron and proceeded to blockade Manila.[41] Several days later, Dewey agreed to transport Aguinaldo from Hong Kong to the Philippines aboard theUSSMcCulloch, which left Hong Kong with Aguinaldo on May 16 and arrived in Cavite on May 19.[42] Aguinaldo promptly resumed the command of revolutionary forces and besieged Manila.[43]
Aguinaldo had brought with him the draft constitution ofMariano Ponce for the establishment of federal revolutionary republic upon his return to Manila, but on May 24, 1898, in Cavite, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation upon the advice of his war counselorAmbrosio Rianzares Bautista, and Aguinaldo assumed the command of all Philippine forces and established a dictatorial government with himself as titular dictator and power vested upon him to administer decrees promulgated under his sole responsibility. The dictatorial government was provisional in character until peace was established and unrestrained liberty attained.[44]Dean Worcester wrote, "although the title of 'president' was assumed by Aguinaldo, as more likely to be favourably considered in the United States than 'dictator', the tendency of his followers who had not been educated in Europe was to speak of and to regard him not as a president, but as an overlord holding all power in his hands."[45]
On May 28, 1898, Aguinaldo gathered a force of about 18,000 troops and fought against a small garrison of Spanish troopsin Alapan, Imus, Cavite. The battle lasted from 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. After the victory at Alapan, Aguinaldo unfurled thePhilippine flag for the first time and hoisted it at the Teatro Caviteño in Cavite Nuevo (present-day Cavite City) in front of Filipino revolutionaries and more than 300 captured Spanish troops. A group of American sailors of the US Asiatic Squadron also witnessed the unfurling.Flag Day is celebrated every May 28 to honor the battle.[citation needed]
Declaration of independence and revolutionary government
On June 12, Aguinaldo promulgated thePhilippine Declaration of Independence from Spain in his ownmansion house in Cavite El Viejo, believing that declaration would inspire the Filipino people to eagerly rise against the Spaniards. On June 18, he issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government in which he also provided for the organization of the local government and the establishment and the composition of the Revolutionary Congress.[46]
On June 23, Aguinaldo issued a decree replacing his dictatorial government with a revolutionary government with himself as president upon the recommendation of his adviserApolinario Mabini. The decree defined the organization of the central government and the establishment and the election of delegates to the Revolutionary Congress and to prepare for the shift from a revolutionary government to a republic.[47][48]
By May 1898, Filipino troops had cleared Cavite of Spanish forces. In late June 1898, Aguinaldo, with the help of American allies, who were now landing in Cavite, was now preparing to drive the Spaniards out of Manila. The first contingent of American troops arrived in Cavite on June 30, the second under GeneralFrancis V. Greene on July 17, and the third under GeneralArthur MacArthur Jr on July 30.[49] By then, 12,000 US troops had landed in the Philippines.[50]
Aguinaldo had presented surrender terms to SpanishGovernor-General of the PhilippinesBasilio Augustín, who refused them initially since he believed that more Spanish troops would be sent to lift the siege.[51][52] As the combined forces of Filipinos and Americans were closing in, Augustín realized that his position was hopeless, secretly continued to negotiate with Aguinaldo, and even offered ₱1 million, but Aguinaldo refused. When the SpanishCortes learned of Augustín's attempt to negotiate the surrender of his army to Filipinos under Aguinaldo, it was furious and relieved Augustín of his duties effective July 24. He was replaced byFermin Jáudenes. On June 16, warships departed Spain to lift the siege, but they altered course for Cuba where a Spanish fleet was imperiled by the US Navy.[53]
In August 1898, life inIntramuros, the walled center of Manila, had become unbearable, and the normal population of about 10,000 was now 70,000. Realizing that it was only a matter of time before the city fell and fearing vengeance and looting if the city fell to Filipino revolutionaries, Jáudenes, suggested to Dewey, through the Belgian consul,Édouard André, for the city to be surrendered to the Americans after a short, "mock" battle. Dewey had initially rejected the suggestion because he lacked the troops to block Filipino revolutionary forces, which numbered 40 000, but when Merritt's troops became available, he sent a message to Jáudenes, agreeing to the mock battle. A bloodless mock battle had been planned, but Spanish troops opened fire in a skirmish that left six Americans and forty-nine Spaniards dead after Filipino revolutionaries, thinking that the attack was genuine, joined advancing US troops.[54] Besides the unplanned casualties, the battle went according to plan. The Spanish surrendered the city to the Americans, and it did not fall to the Filipino revolutionaries, who felt betrayed.[55] By the end of September, Aguinaldo's forces had captured over 9,000 Spanish prisoners, who were relieved of their weapons. They were generally free to move around but remained within the control of Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo did not know that on December 10, 1898, theTreaty of Paris had been signed; it transferred the Philippines from Spain to the United States for the sum of $20 million.[56]
TheFirst Philippine Republic was formally established with the proclamation of theMalolos Constitution on January 21, 1899, inMalolos,Bulacan and endured until capture of Aguinaldo by the American forces on March 23, 1901, inPalanan, Isabela, which effectively dissolved the First Republic. Aguinaldo wrote inTarlac during the First Republic theTagalog manuscript of his autobiographical work, which would later be translated byFelipe Buencamino into Spanish and released asReseña Veridica de la Revolucion Filipina (in English,True Account of the Philippine Revolution).[57]
Aguinaldo boardingUSS Vicksburg following his capture in 1901
On August 13, 1898, American forces had captured Manila during the "mock"Battle of Manila and on August 14, 1898, established theUnited States Military Government of the Philippine Islands, with Major-GeneralWesley Merritt as the firstAmerican Military Governor.[58] On the night of February 4, 1899, a Filipino was shot by an American sentry. That incident was considered to be the beginning of thePhilippine–American War and culminated in the 1899Battle of Manila between American and Filipino forces. Superior American military technology drove Filipino troops away from the city, and Aguinaldo's government had to move from one place to another as defeats mounted.[59] At theBattle of Marilao River, Aguinaldo himself took command in a desperate attempt to prevent American crossings. The Americans gained superiority in the battle only after severe fighting and the use ofgunboats in the river that "made great execution" of Filipino soldiers.[60] On November 13, 1899, Aguinaldo issued an order disbanding the remnants of the Filipino national army; in the same order, he formulated a strategy ofguerrilla warfare. Aguinaldo subsequently fled to NorthernLuzon, where he continued to exercise command.[61]
On March 23, 1901, with the aid ofMacabebe Scouts forces led by GeneralFrederick Funston, Aguinaldo was captured in his headquarters inPalanan, Isabela.[62] On April 19, 1901, Aguinaldo took an oath of allegiance to the United States, formally ending the First Republic and recognizing the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines.[63] He published a manifesto in which he acknowledged that most of the Filipino people had united around the United States, declaring "unmistakably in favor of peace", said, "a complete termination of hostilities and lasting peace are not only desirable, but absolutely essential to the welfare of the Philippine Islands." In this manifesto, he acknowledged and accepted U.S. sovereignty throughout the Philippines.[64][65]
Aguinaldo is described as president of the Philippines in some official and authoritative sources in connection with insurgent governments he headed in revolution against outside sovereignties holding the Philippines as a territorial possession.[b][66][67]
Bonifacio refused to recognize the revolutionary government that was elected in theTejeros Convention and reasserted his authority via theActa de Tejeros and theNaic Military Agreement. He accused theMagdalo faction of treason and issued orders that are contradictory and contravention to the revolutionary government.[68] On April 25, 1897, several complaints were sent to Aguinaldo, notably by Severino de las Alas, a known supporter and loyalist of Bonifacio, along with Jose Coronel, and many others, that Bonifacio and his men ransacked, pillaged and burned the town ofIndang, stealing the carabaos and other work animals by force and killed them for food and terrorized the townspeople for being unable to give enough supplies and other provisions due to poor harvest.[69][70][71] Aguinaldo was then forced to order the arrest of Bonifacio. After the trials, Andrés and his brother, Procopio, were ordered by the Consejo de la Guerra (Council of War) to be executed by firing squad under the command of MajorLazaro Macapagal on May 10, 1897, near Mount Nagpatong, Mount Buntis, Mount Pumutok, andMaragondon, Cavite.[72] Aguinaldo had pardoned the Bonifacio brothers and that they should be exiled in Pico de Loro, butPío del Pilar andMariano Noriel, both former supporters and loyalist of Bonifacio, along with other high-ranking generals of the revolution, forced Aguinaldo to withdraw the order for the sake of preserving unity.[73] According to Aguinaldo, in his two books "Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan" and "A Second Look at America", he stated that his withdrawal of the commutation order/exile did not mean immediate implementation of the death verdict, that Noriel had misconstrued this and acted hastily. He says he wanted a little more time for a cooling-off period so that eventually the Bonifacio brothers would be forgiven and pardoned.
Antonio Luna was a highly regarded general in the revolution who was sometimes at odds with Aguinaldo. On June 2, 1899, Luna received one telegram (he failed to receive two others) sent by Aguinaldo himself. According to Ambeth Ocampo, the message that Aguinaldo sent stated "Felipe Buencamino is detained without ordering the formation of the case. I await your reply to my previous telegram where I request the basis for your accusation. Beseech urgency."[74]
Luna wrote toArcadio Maxilom, military commander ofCebu, to stand firm in the war.[75] Luna set off fromBayambang, first by train, then on horseback, and eventually in three carriages, to Nueva Ecija with 25 of his men.[76][77] During the journey, two of the carriages broke down and so he proceeded with just one carriage withColonel Francisco Román and Captain Eduardo Rusca, having earlier shed his cavalry escort.[citation needed] On June 4, Luna sent a telegram to Aguinaldo to confirm his arrival. Upon arriving at Cabanatuan on June 5, Luna alone proceeded to headquarters to communicate with the president. As he went up the stairs, he ran into two men: Felipe Buencamino,Minister of Foreign Affairs and a member of the Cabinet; and Captain Pedro Janolino. The commander of the Kawit Battalion, Janolino was an old enemy whom Luna had disarmed for insubordination, and once threatened with arrest for favoring American autonomy. General Luna was told that Aguinaldo had left forSan Isidro inNueva Ecija. (He had actually gone toBamban in Tarlac.) Enraged, Luna asked why he had not been told that the meeting had been canceled.[78]
The general and the captain exchanged heated words as Luna was about to depart. In theplaza, a rifle shot rang out. Still outraged and furious, Luna rushed down the stairs and met Janolino, accompanied by some elements of the Kawit Battalion. Janolino swung hisbolo at Luna, wounding him in the head. Janolino's men fired at Luna while others started stabbing him even as he tried to fire his revolver at one of his attackers.[78] He staggered out into the plaza where Román and Rusca were rushing to his aid, but as he lay dying, they too were set upon and shot, with Román being killed and Rusca being severely wounded. Luna received more than 30 wounds[79] and uttered "Traitors! Assassins!"[78] He was hurriedly buried in thechurchyard, and Aguinaldorelieved Luna's officers and men from the field, including GeneralVenacio Concepción, whose headquarters inAngeles, Pampanga, Aguinaldo besieged the same day that Luna was assassinated.
Immediately after Luna's death, confusion reigned on both sides. The Americans even thought that Luna had taken over to replace Aguinaldo.[80] Luna's death was publicly declared only by June 8, and a circular providing details of the event was released by June 13. Investigations were supposedly made concerning Luna's death, but not one person wasconvicted.[81] Later, General Pantaleón García said in 1921 that he was verbally ordered by Aguinaldo to conduct the assassination of Luna at Cabanatuan. His sickness then prevented his participation in the assassination.[82] Aguinaldo would be firm in his stand that he had nothing to do with the assassination of Luna.[83]
Aguinaldo (front row, second from left), at a pre-Christmas feast in Manila in 1904.
During the American period, Aguinaldo largely retired from public life, though continued to support groups that advocated for immediate independence and helped veterans of the struggle. He organized theAsociación de los Veteranos de la Revolución (Association of Veterans of the Revolution) to secure pensions for its members and made arrangements for them to buy land by installments from the government.
Displaying the Philippine flag was declared illegal by the Sedition Act of 1907, but it was amended on October 30, 1919.[84] Then, Aguinaldo transformed his home in Kawit into a monument to the flag, the revolution, and the Declaration of Independence. After Aguinaldo's death, the government declared the mansion as a National Shrine in June 1964.[85][86]
Aguinaldo andManuel Quezon duringFlag Day, 1935.Aguinaldo delivers a speech in Spanish (1929)
In 1935, the Philippines became acommonwealth, andpresidential elections were held as part of a ten-year transition to complete independence. Aguinaldo returned to public life and ran for the presidency as the candidate of theNational Socialist Party (no relation to the GermanNazi Party) against the highly popularNacionalista Party candidateManuel L. Quezon and Republican Party candidateGregorio Aglipay. However, Aguinaldo's capture by the Americans in 1901 as well as his allegations in the deaths of Bonifacio and Luna had since made him an unpopular figure among the Filipino people, and he lost to Quezon in a landslide, gaining only 17.5% of the popular vote.
Despite his decisive defeat, however, Aguinaldo refused to accept the results of the election, asserting that it was rigged against him.[87] In Cavite, the only province he had won, Aguinaldo's supporters plotted a rally in Manila to disrupt Quezon's inauguration and even assassinate him. However, this planned event was never actually carried out. Aguinaldo continued to criticize Quezon throughout the latter's presidency, expressinganti-semitic views when opposing Quezon's plan to shelter Jews fleeing fromthe Holocaust.[88] In 1939, Aguinaldo vigorously expressed his antisemitism by echoing bigoted notions that Jewish people were "dangerous" and "selfishly materialistic".[89]
The two men formally reconciled in 1941, when Quezon moved Flag Day to June 12 to commemorate the proclamation of Philippine independence.[84]
TheEmpire of Japaninvaded the Philippines on 8 December 1941, ten hours after theattack on Pearl Harbor that had brought the United States into World War II. Aguinaldo, a longtime admirer of Japan, sided with them, as he had previously supported groups that demanded the immediate independence of the Philippines, and entrusted that Japan would free the islands from American rule. In January 1942, Aguinaldo met with General Masami Maeda at the former's Cavite residence to discuss the creation of a pro-Japanese provisional government.[11] On February 1, Aguinaldo delivered a radio address calling upon GeneralDouglas MacArthur and all American and Filipino troops fighting in theBattle of Bataan to surrender to the Japanese army.
Aguinaldo (extreme left) with other members of the Japanese puppet government, 1943
Following the retreat of American forces, Aguinaldo continued his collaboration with the Japanese. He was appointed as a member of both the provisional Council of State as well as thePreparatory Committee for Philippine Independence, which was tasked with creating a new constitution for a Japanesepuppet state in the Philippines. Aguinaldo also played a key role in theKempeitai's campaign to suppressanti-Japanese resistance, urging guerrilla fighters to lay down their arms and surrender to Japan.[90] Aguinaldo was present at the inauguration ceremony of theSecond Philippine Republic on October 14, 1943, raising the flag with Artemio Ricarte, who had returned to the Philippines from Japan at the request of Japanese Prime MinisterHideki Tojo. The Japanese had considered making Aguinaldo president of the republic, a proposal which was supported by Aguinaldo himself, but he was ultimately passed up in favor of formerSupreme Court justiceJose P. Laurel.
After US forcesreturned to the Philippines in October 1944, Aguinaldo went into hiding. During theBattle of Manila, however, members of theMarking Guerrillas resistance force were able to track his whereabouts, and arrested him on February 8, 1945. Aguinaldo was then placed underhouse arrest as the US Army'sCounterintelligence Corps investigated his collaboration with the Japanese. Despite his claims that he had secretly remained loyal to the US throughout the war, and that he, as well as other Axis collaborators, had only been forced to collaborate with Japan under great duress and should therefore all be granted amnesty, on March 9 the People's Court of the Philippines charged Aguinaldo with 11 counts oftreason for his "wholehearted" support for and collaboration with the Empire of Japan.[91]
Aguinaldo was 77 when the US government recognizedPhilippine independence in theTreaty of Manila on July 4, 1946, in accordance with theTydings–McDuffie Act of 1934. On January 28, 1948, Philippine presidentManuel Roxas granted amnesty to all accused political and economic collaborators and, as a result, Aguinaldo's charges were dropped and he was never tried.[92][93][94]
Aguinaldo holding the Philippine flag inLuneta, circa 1940s
In 1950, PresidentElpidio Quirino appointed Aguinaldo as a member of thePhilippine Council of State, where he served a full term. He returned to retirement soon afterward and dedicated his time and attention to veteran soldiers' "interests and welfare." He was conferred an honorary Doctor of Laws, Honoris Causa, by theUniversity of the Philippines in 1953. In 1958, when asked by the Filipino journalist Guillermo Gómez Rivera if he regretted anything in his life, Emilio Aguinaldo stated:[95]
"Yes. I am regretful in large part for having risen up against Spain and, that is why, when the funerals were held in Manila of King Alfonso of Spain, I appeared at the cathedral for the surprise of the Spaniards. And they asked me why I had come to the funeral of the King of Spain against whom I rose up in rebellion... And, I told them that he is still my King because under Spain we were always Spanish subjects, or citizens, but now, under the United States, we are only a consumer market for their exports, if not pariahs, because they never made us citizens of any state of the United States... And the Spaniards made way for me and treated me as their brother on that significant day..."
— President Emilio Aguinaldo, Interview to Aguinaldo and his wife., December 16th, 1958. Cavite, Philippines.
On May 12, 1962, PresidentDiosdado Macapagal changed the celebration of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12 to honor Aguinaldo and the Revolution of 1898, rather than the establishment of theInsular Government of the Philippine Islands by the United States.[96][97] Although in poor health by that point, Aguinaldo attended the 1962 Independence Day observances.[98] On August 4, 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 officially proclaimed June 12 to bePhilippine Independence Day and renamed the Fourth of July holiday as "Philippine Republic Day".[99]
On January 1, 1896, he married his first wife,Hilaria del Rosario (1877–1921). They had five children: Carmen Aguinaldo-Melencio, Emilio "Jun" R. Aguinaldo Jr., Maria Aguinaldo-Poblete, Cristina Aguinaldo-Suntay, and Miguel Aguinaldo. Hilaria died of pulmonary tuberculosis on March 6, 1921, at the age of 44. Nine years later, on July 14, 1930, Aguinaldo married his second wife, Maria Agoncillo (1879–1963), atBarasoain Church. She died on May 29, 1963, a year before Aguinaldo himself.[100]
During the revolt against Spain and subsequent conflicts with American forces, Aguinaldo supported thePhilippine Independent Church.[102] He became a long-time member, but reverted to Roman Catholicism later in life.[18]
"We are confident that his struggle for Philippine independence, his love of freedom and his devotion to country will continue to inspire his people. His monument is theRepublic of the Philippines."
"He was the very incarnation of the Filipino desire for liberty and freedom, and his country owes him much. He was a lifelong friend of mine and his death saddens me."
Aguinaldo was rushed toVeterans Memorial Medical Center (VMMC) inQuezon City on October 5, 1962, under the care of Dr. Juana Blanco Fernandez, where he stayed for 469 days. He died ofcoronary thrombosis on February 6, 1964, at 3:05 amPHT,[104] one month before his 95th birthday.[15] Although Aguinaldo had renounced his Roman Catholic faith when battling against Spanish rule, he reconciled with the Church and received thelast rites from VMMC's Catholic chaplain.[18] A year before his death, he had donated his lot and mansion to the government. The property now serves as a shrine to "perpetuate the spirit of the Revolution of 1896."[12]
Aguinaldo's bookMga Gunita ng Himagsikan (Memoirs of the Revolution) was published in 1964. A second publication was made in 1998 for the 100th anniversary of Philippine Independence.
According to Larry M. Henares of theManila Standard, a consensus had formed by the late 20th century that Aguinaldo was the greatest president in Philippine history for his executory role in thePhilippine Revolution's victory against Spain and his struggle to maintain the nation's independence during thePhilippine–American War.[110]
General Headquarters Building of the AFP at Camp General Emilio Aguinaldo, Quezon City.
In 1957,Emilio Aguinaldo College was established as a private, non-sectarian institute of education and named after Aguinaldo. TheEAC Generals are its varsity teams on which the nicknamedGenerals is to honors President-General Emilio Aguinaldo.
In 1985,BRPGeneral Emilio Aguinaldo was launched and became the lead ship of the General Emilio Aguinaldo class patrol vessel of the Philippine Navy. The ship, along with her only sistershipBRPGeneral Antonio Luna, was made in the Cavite Naval Ship Yard.[115]
Aguinaldo on a 2019 stamp sheet of the Philippines.
Aguinaldo on the5-peso coin from the BSP Coin Series (1995–2017).
In 1985,Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas issued a new5-peso bill depicting a portrait of Aguinaldo on the obverse side. The reverse side features the declaration of the Philippine independence on June 12, 1898. Printing was discontinued in 1995, to give way for the release of₱5.00 coin on December of that year with an obverse side featuring a profile of Aguinaldo. In 2017,Andres Bonifacio officially replaced Aguinaldo on the same coin.[116]
The Aguinaldo Hill, located at Barangay Asibanglan-Pinukpuk Road at Allaguia junction, was used as a common post by Aguinaldo during the Philippine–American War.[118]
^It was the date of Aguinaldo's inauguration as president under theFirst Philippine Republic of theMalolos Constitution.[1] He had held positions as president of the revolutionary government from March 22, 1897, to November 2, 1897, president of theBiak-na-Bato Republic from November 2, 1897, to December 20, 1897, head of a dictatorial government from May 24, 1898, to June 23, 1898, and president of another revolutionary government from June 23, 1898, to January 22, 1899.[2]
^abAguinaldo is honored by thePhilippine Presidential Museum and Library as First President of the Philippines for his presidency of the First Philippine Republic. He had held prior positions as president of arevolutionary government from June 23, 1898, to January 22, 1899, president of theBiak-na-Bato Republic from November 2, 1897, to December 20, 1897, and president of another revolutionaty government from March 22, 1897, to November 2, 1897. He headed adictatorial government from May 24, 1898, to June 23, 1898;[3] That dictatorial government proclaimed Philippine independence from Spain on June 12, 1898.
^It was the date that Aguinaldo formally swore an oath accepting the authority of the United States over the Philippines and pledging his allegiance to the American government after he was captured in March 23.
^Miguel Malvar acted unofficially as head of the Philippine Republic after Aguinaldo was captured. However, Manuel Quezon, elected in 1935, is officially considered to be the next president following Aguinaldo.[4]
^As officially recognized by the contemporary Philippine government; President of thePhilippine Commonwealth in 1935
^The exact date of Aguinaldo's birthdate was March 22, 1869. It can be seen in National Historical Institute's marker in Aguinaldo Shrine, Kawit, Cavite.[12][13][14][15] Some sources give other dates.[16][17]
^abThe Mexican dollar at the time was worth aboutUS$0.50 (equivalent to $18.9 in 2024).[36][37] Thepeso fuerte and the Mexican dollar were interchangeable at par.
^"Aguinaldo opens campaign, June 8, 1935".The Philippines Free Press. June 8, 1935. RetrievedMarch 8, 2014.I do not have any political party behind me, my party is composed of the humble sons of the people, flattered before elections and forgotten after triumph."
^abAra 2015, p. 170 "Aguinaldo's collaboration with Japan began with his contact with Gen. Masami Maeda, Homma's chief of staff.[...] Aguinaldo (ca. 1942) voluntarily met with Maeda at his residence in Cavite to suggest the creation of a provisional government to terminate American rule and cooperate with the Japanese."
^abThe year of birth on his death certificate was incorrectly typed as 1809. "Philippines, Civil Registration (Local), 1888–1983," index and images,FamilySearch (accessed May 2, 2014), Metropolitan Manila > Quezon City > Death certificates > 1964; citing National Census and Statistics Office, Manila.
^Philippine Supreme Court decisionsG.R. No. 192935, identifying Aguinaldo as the beginning of presidential succession, andG.R. No. 248395, identifying the 1899 constitution as the beginning of constitutional succession.
^comments by 1935 Constitutional Convention delegate Jose Aruego
^Henares, Larry M. (January 25, 1991)."Who are the greatest Filipino presidents?".Manila Standard. Kagitingan Publications, Inc. p. 14. RetrievedMay 20, 2021.The greatest of all is Emilio Aguinaldo, the first Asian to execute a nationalist revolution and break the shackles of Western Imperialism.
^"Emilio Aguinaldo Speech in Spanish".Around the World in 80 Minutes with Douglas Fairbanks. YouTube. March 26, 1931. Archived fromthe original on December 11, 2021. (video published October 4, 2012)
Guerrero, Milagros; Schumacher, John (1998).Dalisay, Jose Y. (ed.).Kasaysayan: The Story of the Filipino People. Vol. 5: Reform and Revolution. Project Director: Teresa Maria Custudio. Manila / Pleasantville NY: Asia Publishing Company, Limited (Reader's Digest).ISBN9622582281.OCLC39734321. Vol 1 The Philippine Archipelago; Vol 2 The earliest Filipinos; Vol 3 The Spanish conquest; Vol 4 Life in the colony; Vol 5 Reform and revolution; Vol 6 Under stars and stripes; Vol 7 The Japanese occupation; Vol 8 Up from the ashes; Vol 9 A nation reborn; Vol 10 A timeline of Philippine history.
Aguinaldo, Emilio (1964),Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan (in Tagalog),OCLC21734097
Escalante, Rene. "Collapse of the Malolos Republic."Philippine Studies 46#4 (1998), pp. 452–76.JSTOR42634284 blames Aguinaldo's incompetence for loss of public support and collapse of his regime.
Zaide, Gregorio F; Zaide, Sonia M (1984).Philippine history and government: conceptual – chronological approach. National Book Store.OCLC989388381.
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