Significant events includedElizabeth's coronation in 1953 and the celebrations of herSilver,Golden,Diamond, andPlatinumjubilees. Although there was occasionalrepublican sentiment and media criticism of her family—particularly after the breakdowns of her children's marriages, herannus horribilis in 1992, andthe death of her former daughter-in-lawDiana in 1997—support for the monarchy and her popularity in the United Kingdom remained consistently high. Elizabeth died aged 96 atBalmoral Castle, and was succeeded by her eldest son, Charles III.
Elizabeth's only sibling,Princess Margaret, was born in 1930. The two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and theirgoverness,Marion Crawford.[10] Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature, and music.[11] Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margaret's childhood years entitledThe Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of theroyal family.[12] The book describes Elizabeth's love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, and her attitude of responsibility.[13] Others echoed such observations:Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as "a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant."[14] Her cousinMargaret Rhodes described her as "a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved".[15] Elizabeth's early life was spent primarily at the Yorks' residences at145 Piccadilly (theirtown house in London) andRoyal Lodge in Windsor.[16]
Heir presumptive
During her grandfather's reign, Elizabeth was third in theline of succession to the British throne, behind her uncleEdward, Prince of Wales, and her father. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, as Edward was still young and likely to marry and have children of his own, who would precede Elizabeth in the line of succession.[17] Whenher grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second in line to the throne, after her father. Later that year,Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced American socialiteWallis Simpson provoked aconstitutional crisis.[18] Consequently, Elizabeth's father became king, taking theregnal name George VI. Since Elizabeth had no brothers, she becameheir presumptive. If her parents had subsequently had a son, he would have beenheir apparent and above her in the line of succession, which was determined by themale-preference primogeniture in effect at the time.[19]
In 1939, Elizabeth's parentstoured Canada and the United States. As in 1927, when they hadtoured Australia andNew Zealand, Elizabeth remained in Britain since her father thought she was too young to undertake public tours.[23] She "looked tearful" as her parents departed.[24] They corresponded regularly,[24] and she and her parents made the first royaltransatlantic telephone call on 18 May.[23]
In September 1939,Britain entered the Second World War.Lord Hailsham suggested that Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret should beevacuated to Canada to avoid the frequentaerial bombings of London by theLuftwaffe.[25] This was rejected by their mother, who declared, "The children won't go without me. I won't leave without the King. And the King will never leave."[26] The princesses stayed atBalmoral Castle, Scotland, until Christmas 1939, when they moved toSandringham House, Norfolk.[27] From February to May 1940, they lived at Royal Lodge, Windsor, until moving toWindsor Castle, where they lived for most of the next five years.[28] At Windsor,the princesses staged pantomimes at Christmas in aid of the Queen's Wool Fund, which boughtyarn to knit into military garments.[29] In 1940, the 14-year-old Elizabeth made her first radio broadcast during theBBC'sChildren's Hour, addressing other children who had been evacuated from the cities.[30] She stated: "We are trying to do all we can to help our gallant sailors, soldiers, and airmen, and we are trying, too, to bear our own share of the danger and sadness of war. We know, every one of us, that in the end all will be well."[30]
In 1943, Elizabeth undertook her first solo public appearance on a visit to theGrenadier Guards, of which she had been appointedcolonel the previous year.[31] As she approached her 18th birthday, Parliament changed the law so that she could act as one of fivecounsellors of state in the event of her father's incapacity or absence abroad, such as his visit to Italy in July 1944.[32] In February 1945, she was appointed an honorarysecond subaltern in the Auxiliary Territorial Service with theservice number 230873.[33] She trained as a driver and mechanic and was given the rank of honorary junior commander (female equivalent ofcaptain at the time) five months later.[34]
Elizabeth (far left) on the balcony of Buckingham Palace with her family and Winston Churchill,8 May 1945
At the end of the war in Europe, onVictory in Europe Day, Elizabeth and Margaret mingled incognito with the celebrating crowds in the streets of London. In 1985, Elizabeth recalled in a rare interview, "... we asked my parents if we could go out and see for ourselves. I remember we were terrified of being recognised ... I remember lines of unknown people linking arms and walking downWhitehall, all of us just swept along on a tide of happiness and relief."[35][36]
During the war, plans were drawn to quellWelsh nationalism by affiliating Elizabeth more closely with Wales. Proposals, such as appointing her Constable ofCaernarfon Castle or a patron ofUrdd Gobaith Cymru (the Welsh League of Youth), were abandoned for several reasons, including fear of associating Elizabeth withconscientious objectors in the Urdd at a time when Britain was at war.[37] Welsh politicians suggested she be madePrincess of Wales on her 18th birthday. Home SecretaryHerbert Morrison supported the idea, but the King rejected it because he felt such a title belonged solely to the wife of aPrince of Wales and the Prince of Wales had always been the heir apparent.[38] In 1946, she was inducted intothe Gorsedd of Bards at theNational Eisteddfod of Wales.[39]
Elizabeth went on her first overseas tour in 1947, accompanying her parents through southern Africa. During the tour, ina broadcast to theBritish Commonwealth on her 21st birthday, she made the following pledge:[40][c]
I declare before you all that my whole life, whether it be long or short, shall be devoted to your service and the service of our great imperial family to which we all belong. But I shall not have strength to carry out this resolution alone unless you join in it with me, as I now invite you to do: I know that your support will be unfailingly given. God help me to make good my vow, and God bless all of you who are willing to share in it.
The engagement attracted some controversy. Philip had no financial standing, was foreign-born (though aBritish subject who had served in theRoyal Navy throughout the Second World War), and had sisters who had married German noblemen withNazi links.[45] Marion Crawford wrote, "Some of the King's advisors did not think him good enough for her. He was a prince without a home or kingdom. Some of the papers played long and loud tunes on the string of Philip's foreign origin."[46] Later biographies reported that Elizabeth's mother had reservations about the union initially and teased Philip as "the Hun".[47] In later life, however, she told the biographerTim Heald that Philip was "an English gentleman".[48]
At Buckingham Palace with Philip after their wedding, 1947
Before the marriage, Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, officially converted fromGreek Orthodoxy toAnglicanism, and adopted the styleLieutenant Philip Mountbatten, takingthe surname of his mother's British family.[49] Shortly before the wedding, he was createdDuke of Edinburgh and granted the styleHis Royal Highness.[50] Elizabeth and Philip were married on 20 November 1947 atWestminster Abbey. They received 2,500 wedding gifts from around the world.[51] Elizabeth requiredration coupons to buy the material forher gown (which was designed byNorman Hartnell) because Britain had not yet completely recovered from the devastation of the war.[52] Inpost-war Britain, it was not acceptable for Philip's German relations, including his three surviving sisters, to be invited to the wedding.[53] Neither was an invitation extended to the Duke of Windsor, formerly King Edward VIII.[54]
Elizabeth gave birth to her first child,Prince Charles, in November 1948. One month earlier, the King had issuedletters patent allowing her children to use the style and title of a royal prince or princess, to which they otherwise would not have been entitled, as their father was no longer a royal prince.[55] A second child,Princess Anne, was born in August 1950.[56]
Following their wedding, the couple leasedWindlesham Moor, near Windsor Castle, until July 1949,[51] when they took up residence atClarence House in London. At various times between 1949 and 1951, Philip was stationed in the BritishCrown Colony of Malta as a serving Royal Navy officer. He and Elizabeth lived intermittently in Malta for several months at a time in thehamlet ofGwardamanġa, atVilla Guardamangia, the rented home of Philip's uncleLord Mountbatten. Their two children remained in Britain.[57]
As George VI's health declined during 1951, Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she visited Canada andHarry S. Truman in Washington, DC, in October 1951, her private secretaryMartin Charteris carried a draft accession declaration in case the King died while she was on tour.[58] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of the British colony ofKenya. On 6 February, they had just returned to their Kenyan home,Sagana Lodge, after a night spent atTreetops Hotel, when word arrived ofthe death of Elizabeth's father. Philip broke the news to the new queen.[59] She chose to retain Elizabeth as her regnal name,[60] and was therefore called Elizabeth II. The numeral offended some Scots, as she was the first Elizabeth to rule in Scotland.[61] She wasproclaimed queen throughout her realms, and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[62] Elizabeth and Philip moved into Buckingham Palace.[63]
With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed possible that theroyal house would take her husband's name, in line with the custom for married women of the time. Lord Mountbatten advocated forHouse of Mountbatten, and Philip suggestedHouse of Edinburgh, after his ducal title.[64] The British prime minister, Winston Churchill, and Elizabeth's grandmother Queen Mary favoured the retention of theHouse of Windsor. Elizabeth issued a declaration on 9 April 1952 that the royal house would continue to beWindsor. Philip complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[65] In 1960, the surnameMountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[66][67]
Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret told her sister she wished to marryPeter Townsend, a divorcé 16 years Margaret's senior with two sons from his previous marriage. Elizabeth asked them to wait for a year; in the words of herprivate secretary, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[68] Senior politicians were against the match and theChurch of England did not permitremarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted acivil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce herright of succession.[69] Margaret decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[70] In 1960, she marriedAntony Armstrong-Jones, who was createdEarl of Snowdon the following year. They divorced in 1978; Margaret did not remarry.[71]
DespiteQueen Mary's death on 24 March 1953, the coronation went ahead as planned on 2 June, as Mary had requested.[72] The coronation ceremony in Westminster Abbey was televised for the first time, with the exception of theanointing andcommunion.[73][d] On Elizabeth's instruction,her coronation gown was embroidered with thefloral emblems of Commonwealth countries.[77]
From Elizabeth's birth onwards, theBritish Empire continued its transformation into theCommonwealth of Nations.[78] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[79] In 1953, Elizabeth and Philip embarked on a seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering more than 40,000 miles (64,000 km) by land, sea and air.[80] She became the first reigningmonarch of Australia andNew Zealand to visit those nations.[81] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[82] Throughout her reign, she made hundreds ofstate visits to other countries andtours of the Commonwealth; she was the most widely travelledhead of state.[83]
In 1956, the British and French prime ministers,Sir Anthony Eden andGuy Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted, and the following year, France signed theTreaty of Rome, which established theEuropean Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union.[84] In November 1956, Britain and Franceinvaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture theSuez Canal. Lord Mountbatten said that Elizabeth was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[85]
The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led, in 1957, to the first major personal criticism of Elizabeth. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[87]Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[88] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[89] Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised Elizabeth to appointAlec Douglas-Home as the prime minister, advice she followed.[90] Elizabeth again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister.[90] In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving the Queen of her involvement.[91]
In 1957, Elizabeth made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed theUnited Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the firstmonarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session.[92] Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada.[92][93] In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan,Nepal, andIran.[94] On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, PresidentKwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins.[95] Harold Macmillan wrote, "The Queen has been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen."[95] Before her tour through parts ofQuebec in 1964, the press reported that extremists within theQuebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination.[96] No assassination attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was inMontreal; her "calmness and courage in the face of the violence" was noted.[97]
Elizabeth gave birth to her third child,Prince Andrew, in February 1960; this was the first birth to a reigning British monarch since 1857.[98] Her fourth child,Prince Edward, was born in March 1964.[99]
The 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in thedecolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. More than 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, the Rhodesian prime minister,Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towardsmajority rule,unilaterally declared independence while expressing "loyalty and devotion" to Elizabeth. Although Elizabeth formally dismissed him, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade.[100] As Britain's ties to its former empire weakened, the British government sought entry to theEuropean Community, a goal itachieved in 1973.[101]
In 1966, the Queen was criticised for waiting eight days before visiting the village ofAberfan, wherea mining disaster killed 116 children and 28 adults. Martin Charteris said that the delay, made on his advice, was a mistake that she later regretted.[102][103]
In February 1974, British prime ministerEdward Heath advised Elizabeth to calla general election in the middle of her tour of theAustronesianPacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain.[106] The election resulted in ahung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with theLiberals. When discussions on forming a coalition foundered, Heath resigned, and Elizabeth asked theLeader of the Opposition,Labour'sHarold Wilson, to form a government.[107]
According toPaul Martin Sr., by the end of the 1970s, Elizabeth was worriedthe Crown "had little meaning for"Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian prime minister.[114]Tony Benn said Elizabeth found Trudeau "rather disappointing".[114] Trudeau's supposedrepublicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind Elizabeth's back in 1977, and the removal of variousCanadian royal symbols during his term of office.[114] In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss thepatriation of theCanadian constitution found Elizabeth "better informed ... than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats".[114] She was particularly interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her role as head of state.[114]
Perils and dissent
Riding Burmese at the 1986 Trooping the Colour ceremony
During the 1981Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before thewedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at Elizabeth from close range as she rode downThe Mall, London, on her horse,Burmese. Police later discovered the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old assailant,Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three.[115] Elizabeth's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised.[116] That October, Elizabeth was the subject of another attack while on a visit toDunedin, New Zealand.Christopher John Lewis, who was 17 years old, fired a shot with a.22 rifle from the fifth floor of a building overlooking the parade but missed.[117] Lewis was arrested, but instead of being charged withattempted murder ortreason was sentenced to three years in jail for unlawful possession and discharge of a firearm. Two years into his sentence, he attempted to escape apsychiatric hospital with the intention of assassinating Charles, who was visiting the country withDiana and their sonPrince William.[118]
Riding at Windsor with President Reagan, June 1982
From April to September 1982, Elizabeth's son Andrew served with British forces in theFalklands War, for which she reportedly felt anxiety[119] and pride.[120] On 9 July, she awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder,Michael Fagan, in the room with her. In a serious lapse of security, assistance only arrived after two calls to the Palace police switchboard.[121] After hosting US presidentRonald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visitinghis California ranch in 1983, Elizabeth was angered whenhis administration ordered theinvasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.[122]
Intense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, pioneered byThe Sun tabloid.[123] AsKelvin MacKenzie, editor ofThe Sun, told his staff: "Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true—so long as there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards."[124] Newspaper editorDonald Trelford wrote inThe Observer of 21 September 1986: "The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of ... it is not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are true or not." It was reported, most notably inThe Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that Elizabeth was worried thatMargaret Thatcher'seconomic policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment,a series of riots, the violence ofa miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against theapartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included royal aideMichael Shea and Commonwealth secretary-generalShridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were takenout of context and embellished by speculation.[125] Thatcher reputedly said Elizabeth would vote for theSocial Democratic Party—Thatcher's political opponents.[126] Thatcher's biographerJohn Campbell claimed "the report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making".[127] Reports of acrimony between them were exaggerated,[128] and Elizabeth gave two honours in her personal gift—membership in theOrder of Merit and theOrder of the Garter—to Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister byJohn Major.[129]Brian Mulroney, Canadian prime minister between 1984 and 1993, said Elizabeth was a "behind the scenes force" in ending apartheid.[130][131]
By the end of the 1980s, Elizabeth had become the target of satire.[136] The involvement of younger members of the royal family in the charity game showIt's a Royal Knockout in 1987 was ridiculed.[137] In Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisiveconstitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau.[130] The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed ina military coup. Asmonarch of Fiji, Elizabeth supported the attempts of Governor-GeneralRatu Sir Penaia Ganilau to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leaderSitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic.[138]
In November 1992, in a speech to mark theRuby Jubilee of her accession, Elizabeth called 1992 herannus horribilis (a Latin phrase, meaning'horrible year').[140]Republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of Elizabeth's private wealth—contradicted by the Palace[e]—and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family.[145] In March, her second son, Prince Andrew, separated from his wife,Sarah; her daughter, Princess Anne, divorced CaptainMark Phillips in April;[146] angry demonstrators inDresden threw eggs at Elizabeth during a state visit to Germany in October;[147] anda large fire broke out at Windsor Castle, one of herofficial residences, in November. The monarchy came under increased criticism and public scrutiny.[148] In an unusually personal speech, Elizabeth said that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it might be done with "a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding".[149] Two days later, John Major announced plans to reform the royal finances, drawn up the previous year, including Elizabeth payingincome tax from 1993 onwards, and a reduction in thecivil list.[150] In December, Prince Charles and his wife, Diana, formally separated.[151] At the end of the year, Elizabeth suedThe Sun newspaper for breach of copyright when it published the text of herannual Christmas message two days before it was broadcast. The newspaper was forced to pay her legal fees and donated £200,000 to charity.[152] Elizabeth's solicitors had taken successful action againstThe Sun five years earlier for breach of copyright after it published a photograph of her daughter-in-law the Duchess of York and her granddaughterPrincess Beatrice.[153]
In January 1994, Elizabeth broke her left wrist when a horse she was riding at Sandringham tripped and fell.[154] In October 1994, she became the first reigning British monarch to set foot on Russian soil.[f] In October 1995, she was tricked into ahoax call by Montreal radio hostPierre Brassard impersonating Canadian prime ministerJean Chrétien. Elizabeth, who believed that she was speaking to Chrétien, said she supported Canadian unity and would try to influenceQuebec's referendum on proposals to break away from Canada.[159]
In the year that followed, public revelations on the state of Charles and Diana's marriage continued.[160] In consultation with her husband and John Major, as well as theArchbishop of Canterbury (George Carey) and her private secretary (Robert Fellowes), Elizabeth wrote to Charles and Diana at the end of December 1995, suggesting that a divorce would be advisable.[161]
In August 1997, a year after the divorce, Dianawas killed in a car crash in Paris. Elizabeth was on holiday with her extended family at Balmoral. Diana's two sons, Princes William andHarry, wanted to attend church, so Elizabeth and Philip took them that morning.[162] Afterwards, for five days, the royal couple shielded their grandsons from the intense press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in private,[163] but the royal family's silence and seclusion, and the failure to fly a flag athalf-mast over Buckingham Palace, caused public dismay.[131][164] Pressured by the hostile reaction, Elizabeth agreed to return to London and address the nation in alive television broadcast on 5 September, the day beforeDiana's funeral.[165] In the broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana and her feelings "as a grandmother" for the two princes.[166] As a result, much of the public hostility evaporated.[166]
In October 1997, Elizabeth and Philip made a state visit to India, which included a controversial visit to the site of theJallianwala Bagh massacre to pay her respects. Protesters chanted "Killer Queen, go back",[167] and there were demands for her to apologise for the action of British troops 78 years earlier.[168] At the memorial in the park, she and Philip laid awreath and stood for a 30‑secondmoment of silence.[168] As a result, much of the fury among the public softened, and the protests were called off.[167] That November, the royal couple held a reception atBanqueting House to mark their golden wedding anniversary.[169] Elizabeth made a speech and praised Philip for his role as consort, referring to him as "my strength and stay".[169]
Golden Jubilee dinner with living British prime ministers, 2002: (left to right) Tony Blair, Margaret Thatcher, Edward Heath, Elizabeth,James Callaghan, John Major
On the eve of the new millennium, Elizabeth and Philip boarded a vessel fromSouthwark, bound for theMillennium Dome. Before passing underTower Bridge, she lit the National Millennium Beacon in thePool of London using a laser torch.[172] Shortly before midnight, she officially opened the Dome.[173] During the singing ofAuld Lang Syne, Elizabeth held hands with Philip and British prime ministerTony Blair.[174] Following the9/11 attacks in the United States, Elizabeth, breaking with tradition, ordered theAmerican national anthem to be played during thechanging of the guard at Buckingham Palace to express her solidarity with the country.[175][176]
In 2002, Elizabeth marked herGolden Jubilee, the 50th anniversary of her accession. Her sister died in February andher mother in March, and the media speculated on whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure.[177] Princess Margaret's death shook Elizabeth; her funeral was one of the rare occasions where Elizabeth openly cried.[178] Elizabeth again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, beginning in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet "memorable" after apower cut plungedKing's House, the official residence of thegovernor-general, into darkness.[179] As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments were named to honour the occasion. One million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London,[180] and the enthusiasm shown for Elizabeth by the public was greater than many journalists had anticipated.[181]
In 2003, Elizabeth sued theDaily Mirror forbreach of confidence and obtained aninjunction which prevented the outlet from publishing information gathered by a reporter who posed as afootman at Buckingham Palace.[182] The newspaper also paid £25,000 towards her legal costs.[183] Though generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 she hadkeyhole surgery on both knees. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the newEmirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been troubling her since the summer.[184]
In May 2007, citing unnamed sources,The Daily Telegraph reported that Elizabeth was "exasperated and frustrated" by the policies of Tony Blair, that she was concerned theBritish Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq andAfghanistan, and that she had raised concerns over rural and countryside issues with Blair.[185] She was, however, said to admire Blair's efforts to achievepeace in Northern Ireland.[186] She became the first British monarch to celebrate a diamond wedding anniversary in November 2007.[187] On 20 March 2008, at theChurch of IrelandSt Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, Elizabeth attended the firstMaundy service held outside England and Wales.[188]
VisitingBirmingham in July 2012 as part of the Diamond Jubilee tour
The2012 Diamond Jubilee marked 60 years since Elizabeth's accession, and celebrations were held throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, and beyond. She and Philip undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom, while their children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other Commonwealth states on her behalf.[193] On 4 June, Jubilee beacons were lit around the world.[194] On 18 December, the Queen became the first Britishsovereign to attend a peacetimeCabinet meeting sinceGeorge III in 1781.[195]
Opening theBorders Railway on the day she became the longest-reigning British monarch, 2015. In her speech, she said she had never aspired to achieve that milestone.[199]
In March 2013, the Queen stayed overnight atKing Edward VII's Hospital as a precaution after developing symptoms ofgastroenteritis.[200] A week later, she signed the newCharter of the Commonwealth.[201] That year, because of her age and the need for her to limit travelling, she chose not to attend the biennialCommonwealth Heads of Government Meeting for the first time in 40 years. She was represented at thesummit in Sri Lanka by Prince Charles.[202] On 20 April 2018, the Commonwealth heads of government announced that Charles would succeed her as Head of the Commonwealth, which the Queen stated as her "sincere wish".[203] She underwentcataract surgery in May 2018.[204] In March 2019, she gave up driving on public roads, largely as a consequence of a car accident involving her husband two months earlier.[205]
On 19 March 2020, as theCOVID-19 pandemic hit the United Kingdom, Elizabeth moved to Windsor Castle and sequestered there as a precaution.[213] Public engagements were cancelled and Windsor Castle followed a strict sanitary protocol nicknamed "HMS Bubble".[214]
On 5 April, in a televised broadcast watched by an estimated 24 million viewers in the United Kingdom,[215] Elizabeth asked people to "take comfort that while we may have more still to endure, better days will return: we will be with our friends again; we will be with our families again;we will meet again."[216] On 8 May, the 75th anniversary ofVE Day, in a television broadcast at 9 pm—the exact time at which her father had broadcast to the nation on the same day in 1945—she asked people to "never give up, never despair".[217] In 2021, she received her first and secondCOVID-19 vaccinations in January and April respectively.[218]
Prince Philip died on 9 April 2021, after 73 years of marriage, making Elizabeth the first British monarch to reign as awidow or widower since Queen Victoria.[219] She was reportedly at her husband's bedside when he died,[220] and remarked in private that his death had "left a huge void".[221] Due to the COVID-19 restrictions in place in England at the time, Elizabeth sat alone at Philip's funeral service, which evoked sympathy from people around the world.[222] It was later reported in the press that Elizabeth had rejected a government offer to relax the rules.[223] In her Christmas broadcast that year, which was ultimately her last, she paid a personal tribute to her "beloved Philip", saying, "That mischievous, inquiring twinkle was as bright at the end as when I first set eyes on him."[224]
Despite the pandemic, Elizabeth attended the2021 State Opening of Parliament in May,[225] the47th G7 summit in June,[226] and hosted US presidentJoe Biden at Windsor Castle. Biden was the 14th US president that the Queen had met.[227] In October 2021, Elizabeth cancelled a planned trip to Northern Ireland and stayed overnight at King Edward VII's Hospital for "preliminary investigations".[228] On Christmas Day 2021, while she was staying at Windsor Castle, 19-year-old Jaswant Singh Chail broke into the gardens using a rope ladder and carrying acrossbow with the aim of assassinating Elizabeth in revenge for theAmritsar massacre. Before he could enter any buildings, he was arrested and detained under theMental Health Act. In February 2023, Chail pleaded guilty toattempting to injure or alarm the sovereign,[229] and was sentenced in October to a nine-year custodial sentence plus an additional five years on extended licence. The sentencing judge also placed Chail under a hybrid order under section 45A of theMental Health Act 1983, ordering that he remain atBroadmoor Hospital to be transferred into custody only after receiving psychiatric treatment.[230]
Platinum Jubilee and beyond
With the royal family on the balcony of Buckingham Palace following thePlatinum Jubilee Pageant, June 2022
Later that month, Elizabeth fell ill with COVID-19 along with several family members, but she only exhibited "mild cold-like symptoms" and recovered by the end of the month.[233][234] She was present atthe service of thanksgiving for her husband at Westminster Abbey on 29 March,[235] but was unable to attend both the annualCommonwealth Day service that month[236] and theRoyal Maundy service in April, because of "episodic mobility problems".[237] In May, she missed theState Opening of Parliament for the first time in 59 years. (She did not attend the state openings in 1959 and 1963 as she was pregnant with Prince Andrew and Prince Edward, respectively.)[238] Later that month she made a surprise visit toPaddington Station and officially opened theElizabeth line, named in her honour.[239]
The Queen was largely confined to balcony appearances during the public jubilee celebrations, and she missed theNational Service of Thanksgiving on 3 June.[240] On 13 June, she became the second-longest reigning monarch in history (among those whose exact dates of reign are known), with 70 years and 127 days on the throne—surpassingKing Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand.[241] On 6 September, she appointed her 15th British prime minister,Liz Truss, at Balmoral Castle in Scotland. This was the only occasion on which Elizabeth received a new prime minister at a location other than Buckingham Palace.[242] No other British monarch appointed as many prime ministers.[243] The Queen's last public message was issued on 7 September, in which she expressed her sympathy for those affected by theSaskatchewan stabbings.[244]
Elizabeth did not plan toabdicate,[245] though she took on fewer public engagements in her later years and Prince Charles performed more of her duties.[246] She told Canadian governor-generalAdrienne Clarkson in a meeting in 2002 that she would never abdicate, saying, "It is not our tradition. Although, I suppose if I became completely gaga, one would have to do something."[247] In June 2022, Elizabeth met the Archbishop of Canterbury,Justin Welby, who "came away thinking there is someone who has no fear of death, has hope in the future, knows the rock on which she stands and that gives her strength."[248]
On 12 September, Elizabeth's coffin was carried up theRoyal Mile in a procession toSt Giles' Cathedral, where theCrown of Scotland was placed on it.[264] Her coffin lay at rest at the cathedral for 24 hours, guarded by theRoyal Company of Archers, during which around 33,000 people filed past it.[265] On 13 September, the coffin was flown toRAF Northolt in west London, before continuing its journey by road to Buckingham Palace.[266] On 14 September, her coffin was taken in a military procession toWestminster Hall, where Elizabeth's bodylay in state for four days. The coffin was guarded by members of both theSovereign's Bodyguard and theHousehold Division. An estimated 250,000 members of the publicfiled past the coffin, as did politicians and other public figures.[267][268] On 16 September, Elizabeth's children helda vigil around her coffin, and the next day her eight grandchildren did the same.[269][270]
Elizabeth'sstate funeral was held at Westminster Abbey on 19 September, which marked the first time a monarch's funeral service was held at the Abbey sinceGeorge II in 1760.[271] More than a million people lined the streets ofcentral London,[272] and the day was declared a holiday in several Commonwealth countries. In Windsor, a final procession involving 1,000 military personnel took place, which 97,000 people witnessed.[273][272] Elizabeth'sfell pony and tworoyal corgis stood at the side of the procession.[274] After a committal service atSt George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, Elizabeth's body was interred with her husband Philip's in theKing George VI Memorial Chapel later the same day, in a private ceremony attended by her closest family members.[275][273][276][277]
Elizabeth rarely gave interviews, and little was known of her political opinions, which she did not express explicitly in public. It is against convention to ask or reveal the monarch's views. WhenTimes journalistPaul Routledge asked her about theminers' strike of 1984–85 during a royal tour of the newspaper's offices, she replied that it was "all about one man" (a reference toArthur Scargill),[278] with which Routledge disagreed.[279] Routledge was widely criticised in the media for asking the question and claimed that he was unaware of the protocols.[279] After the2014 Scottish independence referendum, Prime MinisterDavid Cameron was overheard saying that Elizabeth was pleased with the outcome.[280] She had arguably issued a public coded statement about the referendum by telling one woman outside Balmoral Kirk that she hoped people would think "very carefully" about the outcome. It emerged later that Cameron had specifically requested that she register her concern.[281]
To many of us, our beliefs are of fundamental importance. For me the teachings of Christ and my own personal accountability before God provide a framework in which I try to lead my life. I, like so many of you, have drawn great comfort in difficult times from Christ's words and example.
Elizabeth waspatron of more than 600 organisations and charities.[286] TheCharities Aid Foundation estimated that Elizabeth helped raise over £1.4 billion for her patronages during her reign.[287] Her main leisure interests includedequestrianism and dogs, especially herPembroke Welsh Corgis.[288] Her lifelong love of corgis began in 1933 withDookie, the first of many royal corgis.[289] Scenes of a relaxed, informal home life were occasionally witnessed; she and her family, from time to time, prepared a meal together and washed the dishes afterwards.[290]
Media depiction and public opinion
In the 1950s, as a young woman at the start of her reign, Elizabeth was depicted as a glamorous "fairytale Queen".[291] After the trauma of the Second World War, it was a time of hope, a period of progress and achievement heralding a "newElizabethan age".[292] Lord Altrincham's accusation in 1957 that her speeches sounded like those of a "priggish schoolgirl" was an extremely rare criticism.[293] In the late 1960s, attempts to portray a more modern image of the monarchy were made in the television documentaryRoyal Family and by televisingPrince Charles's investiture as Prince of Wales.[294] Elizabeth also instituted other new practices; her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970.[295] Her wardrobe developed a recognisable, signature style driven more by function than fashion.[296] In public, she took to wearing mostly solid-colourovercoats and decorative hats, allowing her to be seen easily in a crowd.[297] By the end of her reign, nearly one third of Britons had seen or met Elizabeth in person.[298]
At Elizabeth's Silver Jubilee in 1977, the crowds and celebrations were genuinely enthusiastic;[299] but, in the 1980s, public criticism of the royal family increased, as the personal and working lives of Elizabeth's children came under media scrutiny.[300] Her popularity sank to a low point in the 1990s. Under pressure from public opinion, she began to pay income tax for the first time, and Buckingham Palace was opened to the public.[301] Although support forrepublicanism in Britain seemed higher than at any time in living memory, republican ideology was still a minority viewpoint, and Elizabeth herself had high approval ratings.[302] Criticism was focused on the institution of the monarchy itself, and the conduct of Elizabeth's wider family, rather than her own behaviour and actions.[303] Discontent with the monarchy reached its peak on the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, although Elizabeth's personal popularity—as well as general support for the monarchy—rebounded after her live television broadcast to the world five days after Diana's death.[304]
In November 1999,a referendum in Australia on the future of theAustralian monarchy favoured its retention in preference to an indirectly elected head of state.[305] Many republicans credited Elizabeth's personal popularity with the survival of the monarchy in Australia. In 2010, Prime MinisterJulia Gillard noted that there was a "deep affection" for Elizabeth in Australia and that another referendum on the monarchy should wait until after her reign.[306] Gillard's successor,Malcolm Turnbull, who led the republican campaign in 1999, similarly believed that Australians would not vote to become a republic in her lifetime.[307] "She's been an extraordinary head of state", Turnbull said in 2021, "and I think frankly, in Australia, there are more Elizabethans than there are monarchists."[308] Similarly, referendums in bothTuvalu in 2008 andSaint Vincent and the Grenadines in 2009 saw voters reject proposals to become republics.[309]
Polls in Britain in 2006 and 2007 revealed strong support for the monarchy,[310] and in 2012, Elizabeth's Diamond Jubilee year, her approval ratings hit 90 per cent.[311] Her family came under scrutiny again in the last few years of her life due to her son Andrew's association with convicted sex offendersJeffrey Epstein andGhislaine Maxwell,his lawsuit withVirginia Giuffre amidst accusations of sexual impropriety, and her grandson Harry and his wifeMeghan'sexit from the working royal family and subsequent move to the United States.[312] Polling in Great Britain during the Platinum Jubilee, however, showed support for maintaining the monarchy[313] and Elizabeth's personal popularity remained strong.[314] As of 2021 she remained the thirdmost admired woman in the world according to the annualGallup poll, her 52 appearances on the list meaning she had been in the top ten more than any other woman in the poll's history.[315]
Elizabeth held many titles and honorary military positions throughoutthe Commonwealth, was sovereign of many orders in her own countries and received honours and awards from around the world. In each of her realms, she had a distinct title that follows a similar formula:Queen of Saint Lucia and of Her other Realms and Territories inSaint Lucia,Queen of Australia and Her other Realms and Territories in Australia, etc. She was also styledDefender of the Faith.
^Television coverage of the coronation was instrumental in boosting the medium's popularity; the number oftelevision licences in the United Kingdom doubled to 3million,[74] and many of the more than 20million British viewers watched television for the first time in the homes of their friends or neighbours.[75] In North America, almost 100million viewers watched recorded broadcasts.[76]
^TheSunday Times Rich List 1989 put her number one on the list with a reported wealth of £5.2 billion (approximately £12.6 billion in 2023's value),[141] but it included state assets like theRoyal Collection that were not hers personally.[142] In 1993, Buckingham Palace called estimates of £100 million "grossly overstated".[143] In 1971,Jock Colville, her former private secretary and a director of her bank,Coutts, estimated her wealth at £2 million (equivalent to about £15 million in 1993[141]).[144]
^The only previous state visit by a British monarch to Russia was made byKing Edward VII in 1908. The King never stepped ashore, and metNicholas II onroyal yachts off the Baltic port of what is nowTallinn, Estonia.[155][156] During thefour-day visit, which was considered to be one of the most important foreign trips of Elizabeth's reign,[157] she and Philip attended events in Moscow andSaint Petersburg.[158]
"Australia: Royal visits",The Royal Family, The Royal Household, 13 October 2015, archived fromthe original on 1 February 2019, retrieved18 April 2016;
Vallance, Adam (22 December 2015),"New Zealand: Royal visits",The Royal Family, The Royal Household, archived fromthe original on 22 March 2019, retrieved18 April 2016;
^Goodey, Emma (5 February 2022),"Accession Day 2022",The Royal Family, The Royal Household,archived from the original on 20 February 2022, retrieved8 September 2022
^Kottasová, Ivana; Picheta, Rob; Foster, Max; Said-Moorhouse, Lauren (8 September 2022),"Queen Elizabeth II dies at 96", CNN, archived fromthe original on 8 September 2022, retrieved8 September 2022
Fisher, Connie (25 December 2000),"Christmas Broadcast 2000",The Royal Family, The Royal Household,archived from the original on 7 May 2016, retrieved18 April 2016;
^Berry, Ciara (15 January 2016),"Personal Flags",The Royal Family, The Royal Household,archived from the original on 7 May 2016, retrieved18 April 2016
Mitchell, James (2003), "Scotland: Cultural Base and Economic Catalysts", in Hollowell, Jonathan (ed.),Britain Since 1945, Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 109–125,doi:10.1002/9780470758328.ch5,ISBN978-0-6312-0967-6
The generations indicate descent fromGeorge I, who formalised the use of the titlesprince andprincess for members of the British royal family. Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used.
_(cropped)_(3-to-4_aspect_ratio).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_-_23.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
.svg)
