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Electronic engineering is a sub-discipline ofelectrical engineering that emerged in the early 20th century and is distinguished by the additional use ofactive components such assemiconductor devices to amplify and control electric current flow. Previously electrical engineering only used passive devices such as mechanical switches, resistors, inductors, and capacitors.
It covers fields such asanalog electronics,digital electronics,consumer electronics,embedded systems andpower electronics. It is also involved in many related fields, for examplesolid-state physics,radio engineering,telecommunications,control systems,signal processing,systems engineering,computer engineering,instrumentation engineering,electric power control,photonics androbotics.
TheInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is one of the most important professional bodies for electronics engineers in the US; the equivalent body in the UK is theInstitution of Engineering and Technology (IET). TheInternational Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) publishes electrical standards including those for electronics engineering.
Electronics engineering as aprofession emerged followingKarl Ferdinand Braun´s development of thecrystal detector, the firstsemiconductor device, in 1874 and the identification of the electron in 1897 and the subsequent invention of thevacuum tube which could amplify and rectify small electrical signals, that inaugurated the field of electronics.[1][2] Practical applications started with the invention of thediode byAmbrose Fleming and thetriode byLee De Forest in the early 1900s, which made the detection of small electrical voltages such asradio signals from aradio antenna possible with a non-mechanical device. The growth of electronics was rapid. By the early 1920s, commercial radio broadcasting and communications were becoming widespread and electronic amplifiers were being used in such diverse applications as long-distance telephony and the music recording industry.
The discipline was further enhanced by the large amount of electronic systems development duringWorld War II in such asradar andsonar, and the subsequent peace-time consumer revolution following the invention oftransistor byWilliam Shockley,John Bardeen andWalter Brattain.
Electronics engineering has many subfields. This section describes some of the most popular.
Electronic signal processing deals with the analysis and manipulation ofsignals. Signals can be eitheranalog, in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, ordigital, in which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the information.
For analog signals, signal processing may involve theamplification andfiltering of audio signals for audio equipment and themodulation anddemodulation of radio frequency signals fortelecommunications. For digital signals, signal processing may involvecompression,error checking anderror detection, and correction.
Telecommunications engineering deals with thetransmission ofinformation across a medium such as aco-axial cable, anoptical fiber, orfree space. Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in acarrier wave in order to be transmitted, this is known asmodulation. Popular analog modulation techniques includeamplitude modulation andfrequency modulation.
Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design thetransmitters andreceivers needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as atransceiver. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is theirpower consumption as this is closely related to theirsignal strength. If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient the signal's information will be corrupted bynoise.
Aviation-electronics engineering andAviation-telecommunications engineering, are concerned withaerospace applications. Aviation-telecommunication engineers include specialists who work on airborne avionics in the aircraft or ground equipment. Specialists in this field mainly need knowledge ofcomputer,networking,IT, andsensors. These courses are offered at such asCivil Aviation Technology Colleges.[3][4]
Control engineering has a wide range of electronic applications from the flight and propulsion systems ofcommercial airplanes to thecruise control present in many moderncars. It also plays an important role inindustrial automation. Control engineers often usefeedback when designingcontrol systems.
Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such aspressure,flow, andtemperature. The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of electronics engineering andphysics; for example,radar guns use theDoppler effect to measure the speed of oncoming vehicles. Similarly,thermocouples use thePeltier–Seebeck effect to measure the temperature difference between two points.
Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as thesensors of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering.[5]
Computer engineering deals with the design ofcomputers and computer systems. This may involve the design of newcomputer hardware, the design ofPDAs or the use of computers to control anindustrial plant. Development ofembedded systems—systems made for specific tasks (e.g., mobile phones)—is also included in this field. This field includes themicrocontroller and its applications.Computer engineers may also work on a system'ssoftware. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain ofsoftware engineering which falls undercomputer science, which is usually considered a separate discipline.
VLSI design engineeringVLSI stands forvery large-scale integration. It deals with fabrication of ICs and various electronic components. In designing an integrated circuit, electronics engineers first construct circuitschematics that specify the electrical components and describe the interconnections between them. When completed,VLSI engineers convert the schematics into actual layouts, which map the layers of variousconductor andsemiconductor materials needed to construct the circuit.
Electronics is a subfield within the widerelectrical engineering academic subject. In electronics engineering ceramics are materials used to create electronic components. Ceramics are used for the creation of connectors, elements for encapsulation, multilayer capacitors, resistors, and sensors.[6]Electronics engineers typically possess anacademic degree with a major in electronics engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three or four years and the completed degree may be designated as aBachelor of Engineering,Bachelor of Science,Bachelor of Applied Science, orBachelor of Technology depending upon the university. During a bachelor’s degree, students usually complete a capstone course at the end of their degree. The capstone project involves designing and completing a real world project using knowledge from previous courses.[7][8]Many UK universities also offerMaster of Engineering (MEng) degrees at the graduate level.
Some electronics engineers also choose to pursue apostgraduate degree such as aMaster of Science,Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering, or anEngineering Doctorate. The master's degree is being introduced in some European and American Universities as a first degree and the differentiation of an engineer with graduate and postgraduate studies is often difficult. In these cases, experience is taken into account. The master's degree may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy consists of a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia.
In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. Certification allows engineers to legally sign off on plans for projects affecting public safety.[9] After completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements, including work experience requirements, before being certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada, and South Africa),Chartered Engineer orIncorporated Engineer (in the United Kingdom, Ireland, India, and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand) orEuropean Engineer (in much of the European Union).
A degree in electronics generally includes units coveringphysics,chemistry,mathematics,project management and specific topics inelectrical engineering. Initially, such topics cover most, if not all, of the subfields of electronics engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more subfields towards the end of the degree.
Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics and mathematics as these help to obtain both a qualitative and quantitative description of how such systems will work. Today, most engineering work involves the use of computers and it is commonplace to usecomputer-aided design andsimulation software programs when designing electronic systems. Although most electronic engineers will understand basic circuit theory, the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example,quantum mechanics andsolid-state physics might be relevant to an engineer working onVLSI but are largely irrelevant to engineers working withembedded systems.
Apart from electromagnetics and network theory, other items in the syllabus are particular toelectronic engineering courses.Electrical engineering courses have other specialisms such asmachines,power generation, anddistribution. This list does not include the extensiveengineering mathematics curriculum that is a prerequisite to a degree.[10][11]
Various universities have updated their electrical and electronics programs to include renewable energy courses. The courses are being created because the world is shifting towards becoming more energy efficient.[12][13]
Labs are essential for electronics engineering providing students with hands on experience to understand their other electronics classes. Lab activities may involve:
Breadboarding: Building basic circuits to learn components symbols involving leds, diodes, and resistors.[14]
Microcontrollers: Programming hardware devices such as Arduino boards to control other components.[15][16]
Soldering: Placing components on a printed circuit board and securing them using solder.[17]
Renewable energy labs may involve:[18]
Photovoltaic Energy: Using panel simulators to learn the properties of solar energy conversion.
Wind Power: Applying aerodynamics, rotor dynamics, and power generation characteristics to design and enhance wind energy systems.
Water Energy: Simulating water flow using turbines for better understanding of using water for energy.
Smart Grids: Utilizing smart technologies for advancement of electrical power systems. Involving simulation and hardware of grids from renewable energy sources like solar photovoltaic and wind turbines.
The huge breadth of electronics engineering has led to the use of a large number of specialists supporting knowledge areas.
Elements ofvector calculus:divergence andcurl;Gauss' andStokes' theorems,Maxwell's equations: differential and integral forms.Wave equation,Poynting vector.Plane waves: propagation through various media;reflection andrefraction;phase andgroup velocity;skin depth.Transmission lines:characteristic impedance; impedance transformation;Smith chart;impedance matching; pulse excitation.Waveguides: modes in rectangular waveguides;boundary conditions;cut-off frequencies;dispersion relations. Antennas:Dipole antennas;antenna arrays; radiation pattern; reciprocity theorem,antenna gain.[19][20]
Network graphs: matrices associated with graphs; incidence, fundamental cut set, and fundamental circuit matrices. Solution methods: nodal and mesh analysis. Network theorems: superposition, Thevenin and Norton's maximum power transfer, Wye-Delta transformation.[21] Steady state sinusoidal analysis using phasors. Linear constant coefficient differential equations; time domain analysis of simple RLC circuits, Solution of network equations usingLaplace transform: frequency domain analysis of RLC circuits. 2-port network parameters: driving point and transfer functions. State equations for networks.[22]
Electronic devices: Energy bands in silicon, intrinsic and extrinsic silicon. Carrier transport in silicon: diffusion current, drift current, mobility, resistivity. Generation and recombination of carriers.p-n junction diode,Zener diode,tunnel diode,BJT,JFET,MOS capacitor,MOSFET,LED,p-i-n andavalanche photo diode, LASERs. Device technology:integrated circuit fabrication process, oxidation, diffusion,ion implantation, photolithography, n-tub, p-tub and twin-tub CMOS process.[23][24]
Analog circuits: Equivalent circuits (large and small-signal) of diodes, BJT, JFETs, and MOSFETs. Simple diode circuits, clipping, clamping, rectifier. Biasing and bias stability of transistor and FET amplifiers. Amplifiers: single-and multi-stage, differential, operational, feedback and power. Analysis of amplifiers; frequency response of amplifiers. Simpleop-amp circuits. Filters. Sinusoidal oscillators; criterion for oscillation; single-transistor and op-amp configurations. Function generators and wave-shaping circuits, Power supplies.[25]
Digital circuits:Boolean functions (NOT,AND,OR,XOR,...). Logic gates digital IC families (DTL,TTL,ECL,MOS,CMOS). Combinational circuits: arithmetic circuits, code converters,multiplexers, anddecoders.Sequential circuits: latches and flip-flops, counters, and shift-registers. Sample and hold circuits,ADCs,DACs.Semiconductor memories.Microprocessor 8086: architecture, programming, memory, and I/O interfacing.[26][27]
Signals and systems: Definitions and properties ofLaplace transform, continuous-time and discrete-timeFourier series, continuous-time and discrete-timeFourier Transform,z-transform.Sampling theorems.Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems: definitions and properties; causality, stability, impulse response, convolution, poles and zeros frequency response,group delay and phase delay. Signal transmission through LTI systems. Random signals and noise:probability,random variables,probability density function,autocorrelation,power spectral density, and function analogy between vectors & functions.[28][29]
Basic control system components; block diagrammatic description, reduction of block diagrams —Mason's rule. Open loop and closed loop (negative unity feedback) systems and stability analysis of these systems. Signal flow graphs and their use in determining transfer functions of systems; transient and steady-state analysis of LTI control systems and frequency response. Analysis of steady-state disturbance rejection and noise sensitivity.
Tools and techniques for LTI control system analysis and design: root loci,Routh–Hurwitz stability criterion, Bode andNyquist plots. Control system compensators: elements of lead and lag compensation, elements ofproportional–integral–derivative (PID) control. Discretization of continuous-time systems usingzero-order hold and ADCs for digital controller implementation. Limitations of digital controllers: aliasing. State variable representation and solution of state equation of LTI control systems. Linearization of Nonlinear dynamical systems with state-space realizations in both frequency and time domains. Fundamental concepts of controllability and observability forMIMO LTI systems. State space realizations: observable and controllable canonical form. Ackermann's formula for state-feedback pole placement. Design of full order and reduced order estimators.[30][31]
Analog communication systems:amplitude andangle modulation and demodulation systems,spectral analysis of these operations,superheterodyne noise conditions.
Digital communication systems:pulse-code modulation (PCM),differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM),delta modulation (DM), digital modulation – amplitude, phase- and frequency-shift keying schemes (ASK,PSK,FSK), matched-filter receivers, bandwidth consideration and probability of error calculations for these schemes,GSM,TDMA.[32][33]
Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers USA'sInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the UK'sInstitution of Engineering and Technology (IET). Members of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (MIET) are recognized professionally in Europe, as electrical and computer engineers. The IEEE claims to produce 30 percent of the world's literature in electrical and electronics engineering, has over 430,000 members, and holds more than 450 IEEE sponsored or cosponsored conferences worldwide each year. Senior membership of the IEEE is a recognisedprofessional designation in the United States.
For most engineers not involved at the cutting edge of system design and development, technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time is also spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing budgets and determining project schedules. Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or other engineers and for this reason, project management skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and strong written communication skills are therefore very important.
The workplaces of electronics engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electronics engineers may be found in the pristine laboratory environment of a fabrication plant, the offices of a consulting firm or in a research laboratory. During their working life, electronics engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including scientists, electricians, programmers, and other engineers.
Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electronics engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field, and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency, which is even more crucial in the field of consumer electronics products.[34]
Technical skills such as knowledge of circuit design and testing circuits are incorporated in software such as LTSpice and Eagle.[35] LTSpice is used for simulating and examining electronic circuits.[36] Eagle is used to view and design printed circuit boards.[37]
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