"Power grid" redirects here. For the board game, seePower Grid.
Diagram of an electrical grid (generation system in red, transmission system in blue, distribution system in green)
Anelectrical grid (orelectricity network) is an interconnected network forelectricity delivery from producers to consumers. Electrical grids consist ofpower stations,electrical substations to stepvoltage up or down,electric power transmission to carry power over long distances, and finallyelectric power distribution to customers. In that last step, voltage is stepped down again to the required service voltage. Power stations are typically built close to energy sources and far from densely populated areas. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents. From small to large there aremicrogrids,wide area synchronous grids, andsuper grids. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of electricity delivery, known as thepower grid.
Grids are nearly always synchronous, meaning all distribution areas operate withthree phasealternating current (AC) frequencies synchronized (so that voltage swings occur at almost the same time). This allows transmission of AC power throughout the area, connecting the electricity generators with consumers. Grids can enable more efficientelectricity markets.
Although electrical grids are widespread, as of 2016[update], 1.4 billion people worldwide were not connected to an electricity grid.[1] Aselectrification increases, the number of people with access to grid electricity is growing. About 840 million people (mostly in Africa), which is ca. 11% of the World's population, had no access to grid electricity in 2017, down from 1.2 billion in 2010.[2]
Electrical grids can be prone to malicious intrusion or attack; thus, there is a need forelectric grid security. Also as electric grids modernize and introduce computer technology, cyber threats start to become a security risk.[3] Particular concerns relate to the more complex computer systems needed to manage grids.[4]
A microgrid is a local grid that is usually part of the regional wide-area synchronous grid, but which can disconnect and operate autonomously.[5] It might do this in times when the main grid is affected by outages. This is known asislanding, and it might run indefinitely on its own resources.
Compared to larger grids, microgrids typically use a lower voltage distribution network and distributed generators.[6] Microgrids may not only be more resilient, but may be cheaper to implement in isolated areas.
A design goal is that a local area produces all of the energy it uses.[5]
Example implementations include:
Hajjah andLahj, Yemen: community-owned solar microgrids.[7]
Île d'Yeu pilot program: sixty-four solar panels with a peak capacity of 23.7 kW on five houses and a battery with a storage capacity of 15 kWh.[8][9]
Awide area synchronous grid (also called an "interconnection" in North America) is an electrical grid at a regional scale or greater that operates at a synchronized frequency and is electrically tied together during normal system conditions. For example, there are four major interconnections in North America (theWestern Interconnection, theEastern Interconnection, theQuebec Interconnection and theTexas Interconnection). In Europe,one large grid connects most of Western Europe. These are also known as synchronous zones, the largest of which is thesynchronous grid of Continental Europe (ENTSO-E) with 667 gigawatts (GW) of generation, and the widest region served being that of theIPS/UPS system serving countries of the former Soviet Union. Synchronous grids with ample capacity facilitateelectricity market trading across wide areas. In the ENTSO-E in 2008, over 350,000 megawatt hours were sold per day on theEuropean Energy Exchange (EEX).[15]
Each of the interconnects in North America are run at a nominal 60 Hz, while those of Europe run at 50 Hz. Neighbouring interconnections with the same frequency and standards can be synchronized and directly connected to form a larger interconnection, or they may share power without synchronization via high-voltage direct currentpower transmission lines (DC ties), or with variable-frequency transformers (VFTs), which permit a controlled flow of energy while also functionally isolating the independent AC frequencies of each side.
The benefits of synchronous zones include pooling of generation, resulting in lower generation costs; pooling of load, resulting in significant equalizing effects; common provisioning of reserves, resulting in cheaper primary and secondary reserve power costs; opening of the market, resulting in possibility of long-term contracts and short term power exchanges; and mutual assistance in the event of disturbances.[16]
One disadvantage of a wide-area synchronous grid is that problems in one part can have repercussions across the whole grid. For example, in 2018,Kosovo used more power than it generated due to a dispute withSerbia, leading to the phase across the wholesynchronous grid of Continental Europe lagging behind what it should have been. The frequency dropped to 49.996 Hz. This caused certain kinds ofclocks to become six minutes slow.[17]
The synchronous grids of Europe
The two major and three minor interconnections of North America
One conceptual plan of a super grid linking renewable sources across North Africa, the Middle East and Europe. (DESERTEC)[18]
Asuper grid orsupergrid is a wide-area transmission network that is intended to make possible the trade of high volumes of electricity across great distances. It is sometimes also referred to as amega grid. Super grids can support a globalenergy transition by smoothing local fluctuations ofwind energy andsolar energy. In this context, they are considered as a key technology tomitigateglobal warming. Super grids typically usehigh-voltage direct current (HVDC) to transmit electricity long distances. The latest generation of HVDC power lines can transmit energy with losses of only 1.6% per 1000 km.[19]
Electric utilities between regions are many times interconnected for improved economy and reliability.Electrical interconnectors allow for economies of scale, allowing energy to be purchased from large, efficient sources. Utilities can draw power from generator reserves from a different region to ensure continuing, reliable power and diversify their loads. Interconnection also allows regions to have access to cheap bulk energy by receiving power from different sources. For example, one region may be producing cheap hydro power during high water seasons, but in low water seasons, another area may be producing cheaper power through wind, allowing both regions to access cheaper energy sources from one another during different times of the year. Neighboring utilities also help others to maintain the overall system frequency and also help manage tie transfers between utility regions.[20]
Electricity Interconnection Level (EIL) of a grid is the ratio of the total interconnector power to the grid divided by the installed production capacity of the grid. Within the EU, it has set a target of national grids reaching 10% by 2020, and 15% by 2030.[21]
500 kVThree-phase electric power Transmission Lines atGrand Coulee Dam; four circuits are shown; two additional circuits are obscured by trees on the right; the entire 7079 MW generation capacity of the dam is accommodated by these six circuits.Network diagram of a high voltage transmission system, showing the interconnection between the different voltage levels. This diagram depicts the electrical structure[22] of the network, rather than its physical geography.
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement ofelectrical energy from a generating site, via a web of interconnected lines, to anelectrical substation, from which is connected to the distribution system. This networked system of connections is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations and customers. Transmission networks are complex with redundant pathways. Redundancy allows line failures to occur and power is simply rerouted while repairs are done.
Because the power is often generated far from where it is consumed, the transmission system can cover great distances. For a given amount of power, transmission efficiency is greater at higher voltages and lower currents. Therefore, voltages are stepped up at the generating station, and stepped down at local substations for distribution to customers.
Most transmission isthree-phase. Three-phase, compared to single-phase, can deliver much more power for a given amount of wire, since the neutral and ground wires are shared.[23] Further, three-phase generators and motors are more efficient than their single-phase counterparts.
However, for conventional conductors one of the main losses are resistive losses which are a square law on current, and depend on distance. High voltage AC transmission lines can lose 1-4% per hundred miles.[24] However,high-voltage direct current can have half the losses of AC. Over very long distances, these efficiencies can offset the additional cost of the required AC/DC converter stations at each end.
Substations may perform many different functions but usually transform voltage from low to high (step up) and from high to low (step down). Between the generator and the final consumer, the voltage may be transformed several times.[25]
The three main types of substations, by function, are:[26]
Step-up substation: these usetransformers to raise the voltage coming from the generators and power plants so that power can be transmitted long distances more efficiently, with smaller currents.
Step-down substation: these transformers lower the voltage coming from the transmission lines which can be used in industry or sent to a distribution substation.
Distribution substation: these transform the voltage lower again for the distribution to end users.
Aside from transformers, other major components or functions of substations include:
Circuit breakers: used to automatically break a circuit and isolate a fault in the system.[27]
Switches: to control the flow of electricity, and isolate equipment.[28]
The substationbusbar: typically a set of three conductors, one for each phase of current. The substation is organized around the buses, and they are connected to incoming lines, transformers, protection equipment, switches, and the outgoing lines.[27]
General layout of electricity grids. Voltages and depictions of electrical lines are typical for Germany and other European systems.
Distribution is the final stage in the delivery of power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between2 kV and35 kV. But the voltage levels varies very much between different countries, in Sweden medium voltage are normally10 kV between20 kV.[29] Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power todistribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to theutilization voltage. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or thesubtransmission level.[30]
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network.[31]
In cities and towns of North America, the grid tends to follow the classicradially fed design. A substation receives its power from the transmission network, the power is stepped down with a transformer and sent to abus from which feeders fan out in all directions across the countryside. These feeders carry three-phase power, and tend to follow the major streets near the substation. As the distance from the substation grows, the fanout continues as smaller laterals spread out to cover areas missed by the feeders. This tree-like structure grows outward from the substation, but for reliability reasons, usually contains at least one unused backup connection to a nearby substation. This connection can be enabled in case of an emergency, so that a portion of a substation's service territory can be alternatively fed by another substation.
Energy from fossil or nuclear power plants and renewable sources is stored for use by customers.Simplified grid energy flow over the course of a day
Grid energy storage (also calledlarge-scale energy storage) is a collection of methods used forenergy storage on a large scale within anelectrical power grid. Electrical energy is stored during times when electricity is plentiful and inexpensive (especially fromintermittent power sources such asrenewable electricity fromwind power,tidal power andsolar power) or when demand is low, and later power is generated when demand is high, and electricity prices tend to be higher.
Developments in battery storage have enabled commercially viable projects to store energy during peak production and release during peak demand, and for use when production unexpectedly falls giving time for slower responding resources to be brought online.
The demand, or load on an electrical grid is the total electrical power being removed by the users of the grid.
The graph of the demand over time is called thedemand curve.
Baseload is the minimum load on the grid over any given period,peak demand is the maximum load. Historically, baseload was commonly met by equipment that was relatively cheap to run, that ran continuously for weeks or months at a time, but globally this is becoming less common. The extra peak demand requirements are sometimes produced by expensivepeaking plants that are generators optimised to come on-line quickly but these too are becoming less common.[clarification needed]
However, if the demand of electricity exceed the capacity of a local power grid, it will cause safety issue like burning out.[32]
Grids are designed to supply electricity to their customers at largely constant voltages. This has to be achieved with varying demand, variablereactive loads, and even nonlinear loads, with electricity provided by generators and distribution and transmission equipment that are not perfectly reliable.[33] Often grids usetap changers on transformers near to the consumers to adjust the voltage and keep it within specification.
In a synchronous grid all the generators must run at the same frequency, and must stay very nearly in phase with each other and the grid. Generation and consumption must be balanced across the entire grid, because energy is consumed as it is produced. For rotating generators, a localgovernor regulates the driving torque, maintaining almost constant rotation speed as loading changes. Energy is stored in the immediate short term by the rotational kinetic energy of the generators.
Although the speed is kept largely constant, small deviations from the nominal system frequency are very important in regulating individual generators and are used as a way of assessing the equilibrium of the grid as a whole. When the grid is lightly loaded the grid frequency runs above the nominal frequency, and this is taken as an indication byAutomatic Generation Control (AGC) systems across the network that generators should reduce their output. Conversely, when the grid is heavily loaded, the frequency naturally slows, and governors adjust their generators so that more power is output (droop speed control). When generators have identical droop speed control settings it ensures that multiple parallel generators with the same settings share load in proportion to their rating.
In addition, there's often central control, which can change the parameters of the AGC systems over timescales of a minute or longer to further adjust the regional network flows and the operating frequency of the grid.
For timekeeping purposes, the nominal frequency will be allowed to vary in the short term, but is adjusted to preventline-operated clocks from gaining or losing significant time over the course of a whole 24 hour period.
Neighboring grids are almost always out-of-phase with each other, and thus cannot be directly connected. Instead,high-voltage direct current lines orvariable-frequency transformers are used, which allow two out-of-phase synchronous grids to share power.
The sum of the maximum power outputs (nameplate capacity) of the generators attached to an electrical grid might be considered to be the capacity of the grid.
However, in practice, they are never run flat out simultaneously. Typically, some generators are kept running at lower output powers (spinning reserve) to deal with failures as well as variation in demand. In addition generators can be off-line for maintenance or other reasons, such as availability of energy inputs (fuel, water, wind, sun etc.) or pollution constraints.
Firm capacity is the maximum power output on a grid that is immediately available over a given time period, and is a far more useful figure.
Most grid codes specify that the load is shared between the generators inmerit order according to theirmarginal cost (i.e. cheapest first) and sometimes their environmental impact. Thus cheap electricity providers tend to be run flat out almost all the time, and the more expensive producers are only run when necessary.
Failures are usually associated with generators or power transmission lines tripping circuit breakers due to faults leading to a loss of generation capacity for customers, or excess demand. This will often cause the frequency to reduce, and the remaining generators will react and together attempt to stabilize above the minimum. If that is not possible then a number of scenarios can occur.
A large failure in one part of the grid — unless quickly compensated for — can cause current to re-route itself to flow from the remaining generators to consumers over transmission lines of insufficient capacity, causing further failures. One downside to a widely connected grid is thus the possibility ofcascading failure and widespreadpower outage. A central authority is usually designated to facilitate communication and develop protocols to maintain a stable grid. For example, theNorth American Electric Reliability Corporation gained binding powers in the United States in 2006, and has advisory powers in the applicable parts of Canada and Mexico. The U.S. government has also designatedNational Interest Electric Transmission Corridors, where it believes transmission bottlenecks have developed.
Abrownout is an intentional or unintentional drop in voltage in an electricalpower supply system. Intentional brownouts are used for load reduction in an emergency.[34] The reduction lasts for minutes or hours, as opposed to short-termvoltage sag (or dip). The term brownout comes from the dimming experienced by incandescent lighting when the voltage sags. Avoltage reduction may be an effect of disruption of an electrical grid, or may occasionally be imposed in an effort to reduce load and prevent apower outage, known as ablackout.[35]
Power failures are particularly critical at sites where the environment and public safety are at risk. Institutions such ashospitals,sewage treatment plants,mines, shelters and the like will usually have backup power sources such asstandby generators, which will automatically start up when electrical power is lost. Other critical systems, such astelecommunication, are also required to have emergency power. Thebattery room of a telephone exchange usually has arrays oflead–acid batteries for backup and also a socket for connecting a generator during extended periods of outage.
Electrical generation and transmission systems may not always meet peak demand requirements— the greatest amount ofelectricity required by all utility customers within a given region. In these situations, overall demand must be lowered, either by turning off service to some devices or cutting back the supply voltage (brownouts), in order to prevent uncontrolled service disruptions such as power outages (widespread blackouts) or equipment damage. Utilities may impose load shedding on service areas via targeted blackouts,rolling blackouts or by agreements with specific high-use industrial consumers to turn off equipment at times of system-wide peak demand.
Ablack start is the process of restoring an electric power station or a part of anelectric grid to operation without relying on the externalelectric power transmission network to recover from a total or partial shutdown.[36]
Normally, the electric power used within the plant is provided from the station's own generators. If all of the plant's main generators are shut down, station service power is provided by drawing power from the grid through the plant's transmission line. However, during a wide-area outage, off-site power from the grid is not available. In the absence of grid power, a so-called black start needs to be performed tobootstrap the power grid into operation.
To provide a black start, some power stations have smalldiesel generators, normally called theblack start diesel generator (BSDG), which can be used to start larger generators (of severalmegawatts capacity), which in turn can be used to start the main power station generators. Generating plants using steam turbines require station service power of up to 10% of their capacity forboiler feedwater pumps, boiler forced-draft combustion air blowers, and for fuel preparation. It is uneconomical to provide such a large standby capacity at each station, so black-start power must be provided over designated tie lines from another station. Often hydroelectric power plants are designated as the black-start sources to restore network interconnections. A hydroelectric station needs very little initial power to start (just enough to open the intake gates and provideexcitation current to the generator field coils), and can put a large block of power on line very quickly to allow start-up of fossil-fuel or nuclear stations. Certain types ofcombustion turbine can be configured for black start, providing another option in places without suitable hydroelectric plants.[37] In 2017 a utility in Southern California has successfully demonstrated the use of a battery energy storage system to provide a black start, firing up a combined cycle gas turbine from an idle state.[38]
Despite novel institutional arrangements and network designs, power delivery infrastructures is experiencing aging across the developed world. Contributing factors include:
Aging equipment – older equipment has higherfailure rates, leading to customer interruption rates affecting the economy and society; also, older assets and facilities lead to higher inspectionmaintenance costs and furtherrepair andrestoration costs.
Obsolete system layout – older areas require serious additional substation sites andrights-of-way that cannot be obtained in the current area and are forced to use existing, insufficient facilities.
Outdated engineering – traditional tools forpower delivery planning and engineering are ineffective in addressing current problems of aged equipment, obsolete system layouts, and modern deregulated loading levels.
Old cultural value –planning,engineering, operating of system using concepts and procedures that worked in vertically integrated industry exacerbate the problem under a deregulated industry.[39]
Demand response is a grid management technique where retail or wholesale customers are requested or incentivised either electronically or manually to reduce their load. Currently, transmission grid operators use demand response to request load reduction from major energy users such as industrial plants.[40] Technologies such as smart metering can encourage customers to use power when electricity is plentiful by allowing for variable pricing.
Characteristics of a traditional centralized electrical system (left) vis-à-vis those of a smart grid (right)
Thesmart grid is an enhancement of the 20th century electrical grid, using two-way communications and distributed so-called intelligent devices.[41] Two-way flows of electricity and information could improve the delivery network. Research is mainly focused on three systems of a smart grid – the infrastructure system, the management system, and the protection system.[42] Electronic power conditioning and control of the production and distribution of electricity are important aspects of the smart grid.[43]
The smart grid represents the full suite of current and proposed responses to the challenges of electricity supply. Numerous contributions to the overall improvement of energy infrastructure efficiency are anticipated from the deployment of smart grid technology, in particular includingdemand-side management. The improved flexibility of the smart grid permits greater penetration of highly variable renewable energy sources such assolar power andwind power, even without the addition ofenergy storage. Smart grids could also monitor/control residential devices that are noncritical during periods of peak power consumption, and return their function during nonpeak hours.[44]
A smart grid includes a variety of operation and energy measures:
Electric surplus distribution by power lines and auto-smart switch
Sufficient utility grade fiberbroadband to connect and monitor the above, with wireless as a backup. Sufficient spare if "dark" capacity to ensure failover, often leased for revenue.[45][46]
Concerns with smart grid technology mostly focus on smart meters, items enabled by them, and general security issues. Roll-out of smart grid technology also implies a fundamental re-engineering of the electricity services industry, although typical usage of the term is focused on the technical infrastructure.[47]
Smart grid policy is organized in Europe as Smart Grid European Technology Platform.[48] Policy in the United States is described inTitle 42 of the United States Code.[49]
Resistance to distributed generation among grid operators may encourage providers to leave the grid and instead distribute power to smaller geographies.[50][51][52]
TheRocky Mountain Institute[53] and other studies[54] foresee widescale grid defection. However, grid defection may be less likely in places such as Germany that have greater power demands in the winter.[55]
Early electric energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy. In the 1880s, electricity competed with steam, hydraulics, and especiallycoal gas. Coal gas was first produced on customer's premises but later evolved intogasification plants that enjoyedeconomies of scale. In the industrialized world, cities had networks of piped gas, used for lighting. But gas lamps produced poor light, wasted heat, made rooms hot and smoky, and gave offhydrogen andcarbon monoxide. They also posed a fire hazard. In the 1880s electric lighting soon became advantageous compared to gas lighting.
Electric utility companies establishedcentral stations to take advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation, distribution, and system management.[56] After thewar of the currents was settled in favor ofAC power, with long-distance power transmission it became possible to interconnect stations to balance the loads and improve load factors. Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries haveliberalized the regulation of theelectricity market in ways that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business.[57]
In the United Kingdom,Charles Merz, of theMerz & McLellan consulting partnership, built theNeptune Bank Power Station nearNewcastle upon Tyne in 1901,[58] and by 1912 had developed into the largest integrated power system in Europe.[59] Merz was appointed head of a parliamentary committee and his findings led to the Williamson Report of 1918, which in turn created theElectricity (Supply) Act 1919. The bill was the first step towards an integrated electricity system. In 1925 theWeir Committee recommended the creation of a "national gridiron" and so theElectricity (Supply) Act 1926 created theCentral Electricity Board (CEB).[60] The CEB standardized the nation's electricity supply and established the first synchronized AC grid, running at 132 kilovolts and 50hertz but initially operated as regional grids. After brief overnight interconnection in 1937 they permanently and officially joined in 1938 becoming theUK National Grid.
In France,electrification began in the 1900s, with 700communes in 1919, and 36,528 in 1938. At the same time, these close networks began to interconnect: Paris in 1907 at 12 kV, the Pyrénées in 1923 at 150 kV, and finally almost all of the country interconnected by 1938 at 220 kV. In 1946, the grid was the world's most dense. That year the state nationalised the industry, by uniting the private companies asÉlectricité de France. The frequency was standardised at 50 Hz, and the 225 kV network replaced 110 kV and 120 kV. Since 1956, service voltage has been standardised at 220/380 V, replacing the previous 127/220 V. During the 1970s, the 400 kV network, the new European standard, was implemented. Starting on May 29, 1986, the end user service voltage will progressively change to 230/400 V +/-10%.[61][62]
In the United States in the 1920s, utilities formed joint-operations to share peak load coverage and backup power. In 1934, with the passage of thePublic Utility Holding Company Act (USA), electric utilities were recognized aspublic goods of importance and were given outlined restrictions and regulatory oversight of their operations. TheEnergy Policy Act of 1992 required transmission line owners to allow electric generation companies open access to their network[56][63] and led to a restructuring of how the electric industry operated in an effort to create competition in power generation. No longer were electric utilities built as vertical monopolies, where generation, transmission and distribution were handled by a single company. Now, the three stages could be split among various companies, in an effort to provide fair access to high voltage transmission.[20][21] TheEnergy Policy Act of 2005 allowed incentives and loan guarantees for alternative energy production and advance innovative technologies that avoidedgreenhouse emissions.
In China, electrification began in the 1950s.[64] In August 1961, the electrification of the Baoji-Fengzhou section of theBaocheng Railway was completed and delivered for operation, becoming China's firstelectrified railway.[65] From 1958 to 1998, China's electrified railway reached 6,200 miles (10,000 kilometres).[66] As of the end of 2017, this number has reached 54,000 miles (87,000 kilometres).[67] In the currentrailway electrification system of China,State Grid Corporation of China—Archived 2021-12-21 at theWayback Machine—is an important power supplier. In 2019, it completed the power supply project of China's important electrified railways in its operating areas, such asJingtong Railway,Haoji Railway,Zhengzhou–Wanzhou high-speed railway, et cetera, providing power supply guarantee for 110 traction stations, and its cumulative power line construction length reached 6,586 kilometres.[68]
^Note that grid batteries are a useful source of power for grids, but not of primary energy and so they must be charged by another source of energy prior to use.
^Buevich, Maxim; Zhang, Xiao; Schnitzer, Dan; Escalada, Tristan; Jacquiau-Chamski, Arthur; Thacker, Jon; Rowe, Anthony (1 January 2015). "Short Paper: Microgrid Losses".Proceedings of the 2nd ACM International Conference on Embedded Systems for Energy-Efficient Built Environments. BuildSys '15. pp. 95–98.doi:10.1145/2821650.2821676.ISBN9781450339810.S2CID2742485.
^Kirubi, et al. "Community-Based Electric Micro-Grids Can Contribute to Rural Development: Evidence from Kenya." World Development, vol. 37, no. 7, 2009, pp. 1208–1221.
^"Archived copy"(PDF).www.aep.com. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 4 June 2011. Retrieved11 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^"Archived copy"(PDF).Archived(PDF) from the original on 8 May 2018. Retrieved28 August 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^Steven Warren BlumeElectric power system basics: for the nonelectrical professional. John Wiley & Sons, 2007ISBN0470129875 p. 199
^Alan Wyatt,Electric Power Challenges and Choices, The Book Press Limited, Toronto, 1986ISBN0-920650-00-7 page 63
^Knight, U.G.Power Systems in Emergencies - From Contingency Planning to Crisis Management John Wiley & Sons 2001ISBN978-0-471-49016-6 section 7.5 The 'Black Start' Situation
^Philip P. Walsh, Paul FletcherGas turbine performance, John Wiley and Sons, 2004ISBN0-632-06434-X, page 486
^Fang, Xi; Misra, Satyajayant; Xue, Guoliang; Yang, Dejun (2012). "Smart Grid — the New and Improved Power Grid: A Survey".IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials.14 (4):944–980.doi:10.1109/SURV.2011.101911.00087.
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