El Escorial, or theRoyal Site of San Lorenzo de El Escorial (Spanish:Monasterio y Sitio de El Escorial en Madrid), orMonasterio de El Escorial (Spanish pronunciation:[eleskoˈɾjal]), is a historical residence of theking of Spain located in the town ofSan Lorenzo de El Escorial, 2.06 kilometres (1.28 mi) up the valley (4.1 km [2.5 mi] road distance) from the town ofEl Escorial and about 45 kilometres (28 mi) northwest of the Spanish capitalMadrid.[1] Built between 1563 and 1584 by order of KingPhilip II (who reigned 1556–1598),[2][3] El Escorial is the largestRenaissance building in the world.[4] It is one of theSpanish royal sites and functions as a monastery, basilica, royal palace, pantheon, library, museum, university, school, and hospital.
El Escorial consists of two architectural complexes of great historical and cultural significance: the royal monastery itself andLa Granjilla de La Fresneda, a royal hunting lodge and monastic retreat about five kilometres (3.1 mi) away. These sites have a dual nature: during the 16th and 17th centuries, they were places in which the power of the Spanish monarchyand the ecclesiastical predominance of theRoman Catholic religion in Spain found a common architectural manifestation.[5] El Escorial was both a Spanish royal palace and a monastery. Established with a community ofHieronymite monks, it has become a monastery of theOrder of Saint Augustine.[1][6] It also contained a boarding school, now the Real Colegio de Alfonso XII, still in operation.[7]
Philip II engaged the Spanish architectJuan Bautista de Toledo to be his collaborator in the building of the complex at El Escorial.[2][8][9][3] Toledo had spent the greater part of his career in Rome, where he had worked onSt. Peter's Basilica,[10][3] and inNaples serving the king's viceroy, whose recommendation brought him to the king's attention. Philip appointed him architect-royal in 1559, and, together, they designed El Escorial as a monument to Spain's role as a center of the Christian world.[11]
On 2 November 1984,UNESCO declared The Royal Seat of San Lorenzo of El Escorial aWorld Heritage Site.[2][8][9][6][3] It is a popular tourist attraction, often visited by day-trippers from Madrid—more than 500,000 visitors come to El Escorial every year.
El Escorial is situated at the foot ofMount Abantos in theSierra de Guadarrama.[8][9][6][3] This austere location, hardly an obvious choice for the site of a royal palace, was chosen by KingPhilip II of Spain, and it was he who ordained the building of a grand edifice here to commemorate the 1557 Spanish victory at theBattle of St. Quentin inPicardy against KingHenry II of France.[10][2][9][12][3] King Phillip II's goal was to have a princely mansion in a wooded countryside, while also being architecturally different from most buildings that were being commissioned at the time.[13] Phillip's decision to do this was inspired by his journeys in Europe exploring architecture, including theOspedale Maggiore that inspired ideas for the design of the Escorial.[13] One of Phillip II's personal aspirations was to be a monk and a monarch, and this would come to influence the design.[13] The result of all these ideas was an imposing three story tall, orthogonal, stronghold-like structure with a dual function as both a royal residence and monastery.[14] Philip also intended the complex to serve as anecropolis for the interment of the remains of his parents,Charles I andIsabella of Portugal, himself, and his descendants.[12][10] In addition, Philip envisioned El Escorial as a center for studies in aid of theCounter-Reformation cause. The Escorial would come to be so iconic that the design of the building became a new architectural style of Spanish renaissance architecture, known as the Herrerian style.[14]
The building's cornerstone was laid on 23 April 1563.[3] The design and construction were overseen byJuan Bautista de Toledo, who did not live to see the completion of the project.[10][9][6] With Toledo's death in 1567, direction passed to his apprentice,Juan de Herrera,[3] under whom the building was completed in 1584, in slightly less than 21 years.[10][6][4] To this day,la obra de El Escorial ("the work of El Escorial") is a proverbial expression for a thing that takes a long time to finish[15] (comparable English proverb: "Rome wasn't built in a day").
The floor plan of the building is in the form of a gridiron. The traditional belief is that this design was chosen in honor ofSaint Lawrence,[8] who, in the third century AD, was martyred by being roasted to death on a grill.[10][6][16] St. Lawrence's feast day is 10 August, the same date as the 1557 Battle of St. Quentin.[12][10][3]
However, the origin of the building's layout is quite controversial. The grill-like shape, which did not fully emerge untilJuan de Herrera eliminated from the original conception the six interior towers of the façade, was not unique to El Escorial. Other buildings had been constructed with churches or chapels fronting on interior courtyards:King's College, Cambridge, dating from 1441, is one such example; the oldOspedale Maggiore,Milan's first hospital, begun in 1456 byAntonio Filarete, is another grid-like building with interior courtyards. In fact, palaces of this approximate design were commonplace in the Byzantine and Arab world. Strikingly similar to El Escorial is the layout of theAlcázar of Seville and the design of theAlhambra atGranada,[2] where, as at El Escorial, two courtyards in succession separate the main portal of the complex from a fully enclosed place of worship.
Courtyard of the Kings and the Basilica.
The most persuasive theory for the origin of the floor plan is that it isbased on descriptions of theTemple of Solomon by the Judeo-Roman historianFlavius Josephus: a portico followed by a courtyard open to the sky, followed by a second portico and a second courtyard, all flanked by arcades and enclosed passageways, leading to the "holy of holies". Statues ofDavid andSolomon on either side of the entrance to thebasilica of El Escorial lend further weight to the theory that this is the true origin of the design. A more personal connection can be drawn between the David-warrior figure, representing Charles V, and his son, the stolid and solomonically prudent Philip II. Echoing the same theme, a fresco in the center of El Escorial's library, a reminder of Solomon's legendary wisdom, affirms Philip's preoccupation with the great Jewish king, his thoughtful and logical character, and his extraordinary, monumental temple.[17]
El Escorial. View from the northwest
The Temple of Solomon design,[18] if indeed it was the basis for El Escorial, was extensively modified to accommodate the additional functions Philip II intended the building to serve. Besides being a monastery, El Escorial is also a pantheon, a basilica, a convent, a school, a library, and a royal palace.[16] All these functional demands resulted in a doubling of the building's size from the time of its original conception.
Built primarily from locally quarried gray granite,[6] square and sparsely ornamented, El Escorial is austere, even forbidding, in its outward appearance, seemingly more like a fortress than a monastery or palace. It takes the form of a gigantic quadrangle, approximately 224 by 153 metres (735 by 502 ft), which encloses a series of intersecting passageways and courtyards. At each of the four corners is a square tower surmounted by a spire, and, near the center of the complex (and taller than the rest), rise the pointed belfries and round dome of the basilica. Philip's instructions to Juan Bautista de Toledo were simple and clear, directing that the architects should produce "simplicity in the construction, severity in the whole, nobility without arrogance, majesty without ostentation."[19][20]
The main entrance of the El Escorial is the west façade, which has three doors: the middle one leads to the Courtyard of the Kings (Patio de los Reyes) and the side ones lead to a school and to a monastery. Above the center door is a niche where the image ofSaint Lawrence has been placed.[22] The Courtyard of the Kings owes its name to the statues of thekings of Judah that adorn the façade of the basilica, located at the east end of the courtyard. Steps of red marble lead to the large, public chapel, past the narthex, which is one of the highlights of the basilica. The basilica has a floor in the shape of aGreek cross and an enormous dome, inspired bySt. Peter's Basilica in Rome, above the crossing.[23] The naves are covered over by barrel vaults decorated with frescoes byLuca Giordano. The main altarpiece is 30 metres (98 ft) high and divided into compartments of different sizes where are found bronze sculptures, and canvases byPellegrino Tibaldi,Federico Zuccari, andLeone Leoni. In thesacristy, paintings such asJoseph's Coat byVelázquez,The Last Supper byTitian, andThe Adoration of the Sacred Host by Charles II byClaudio Coello are on exhibit.
Detail of the Courtyard of the Kings
Under the royal chapel of the Basilica is the Royal Pantheon crypt.[23] This is the place of burial for the kings of Spain.[6] It is an octagonal Baroque mausoleum made of marble where all of the Spanish monarchs since Charles I have been buried, with the exception ofPhilip V,Ferdinand VI, andAmadeus of Savoy.[1] The remains of theCount of Barcelona, the father of KingJuan Carlos I of Spain, also rest in this pantheon despite the fact that the Count never became king himself. The enclosure is presided over by an altar of veined marble, and the sarcophagi are bronze and marble. There is also the Pantheon of the Princes, where the bodies of the queens who did not have a crowned succession and the princes and princesses were laid to rest. This part was built in the nineteenth century.
Next to the basilica, to the south, is the Courtyard of the Evangelists. This is a gardened patio in whose center rises a magnificent pavilion, byJuan de Herrera, in which one can find sculptures of the Evangelists. Around the courtyard are the galleries of the main cloister, decorated with frescoes by Tibaldi and his workshop, in which scenes from the history of the Redemption are represented. In the East gallery, one finds the splendid main staircase with a fresco-decorated vaulted ceiling depictingThe glory of the Spanish monarchy, painted byLuca Giordano in 1692.
The Palace of the Austrians (Palacio de los Austrias), also known as the House of the King (Casa del Rey), is found behind the presbytery of the basilica. The outbuildings of this palace, of Italian style, are distributed around the Courtyard of the Fountainheads (Patio de los Mascarones). Inside the House of the King are theSala de las Batallas (Hall of Battles), which contains frescoes of the battles of San Quintín and Higueruela, among others. The next building contains the rooms of Philip II and of the InfantaIsabella Clara Eugenia. Another outbuilding is that ofAlcoba del Rey, housing the bed in which Philip II died.
Dome of the Basilica of El EscorialWooden model of the roofHigh altar of the Basilica
The basilica of San Lorenzo el Real, the central building in the El Escorial complex, was originally designed, like most of the late Gothic cathedrals of Western Europe, to take the form of aLatin cross.[24] As such, it has a longnave on the east–west axis intersected by a shorter transept, about three-quarters of the way between the west entrance and the high altar. This plan was modified byJuan de Herrera to that of aGreek cross, a form with all four arms of equal length. Coincident with this shift in approach, the bell towers at the western end of the church were somewhat reduced in size and the small half-dome intended to stand over the altar was replaced with a full circular dome over the center of the church, where the four arms of the Greek cross meet.
ClearlyJuan Bautista de Toledo's experience with the dome of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome influenced the design of El Escorial's basilica. However, the Roman dome is supported by ranks of taperedCorinthian columns, with their extravagant capitals of acanthus leaves and their elaboratelyfluted shafts, while the dome at El Escorial, soaring nearly 100 metres (330 ft) into the air, is supported by four heavy granite piers connected by simpleRomanesque arches and decorated by simpleDoricpilasters, plain, solid, and largely unprepossessing. It would not be a flight of fancy to interpret St. Peter's as the quintessential expression ofBaroque sensuality and the basilica at El Escorial as a statement of the stark rigidity and grim purposefulness of theInquisition, the two sides of theCounter-Reformation.
Courtyard of the EvangelistsWall in the Hall of Battles
The most richly decorated part of the church is the area surrounding the high altar. Behind the altar is a three-tieredreredos, or altar screen, made of red granite andjasper, nearly 28 metres (92 ft) tall, adorned with gilded bronze statuary byLeone Leoni, and three sets of religious paintings commissioned by Philip II. To either side are gilded life-size bronzes of the kneeling family groups of Charles and Philip, also by Leoni, with help from his sonPompeo. In a shallow niche at the center of the lowest level is the tabernacle, a repository for the physical elements of the communion ceremony, a so-called "House of the Sacrament", designed by Juan de Herrera in jasper andbronze. It was built between 1579 and 1586 byJacopo da Trezzo.
To decorate thereredos, the King's preferences had beenMichelangelo orTitian, but both of these giants were already more than eighty years old and in frail health.[25] Consequently, Philip consulted his foreign ambassadors for recommendations, and the result was a lengthy parade of the lesser European artists of that time, all swanning through the construction site at El Escorial seeking the King's favor.
One chapel exhibits the famousCrucifix carved in white marble byBenvenuto Cellini. This statue of Christ is unusual because it was represented fully nude; although for modesty it wears one cloth covering the genitals.[26]
Situated next to the main altar of the Basilica, the residence of King Philip II consists of a series of austerely decorated rooms. It features a window from which the king could observemass from his bed when incapacitated by thegout that afflicted him.[27]
The gallery was originally called the King's Gallery (Galería del Rey) but came to be known as the Hall of Battles (Sala de Batallas) for itsfresco paintings depicting the most important Spanish military victories.[28] These include a medieval victory over theMoors, as well as several of Philip's campaigns against the French.
This chamber consists of twenty-six marble sepulchres containing the remains of the kings and queens regnant (the only queen regnant since Philip II beingIsabella II) of theHabsburg andBourbon dynasties, fromCharles I to the present, except forPhilip V and his sonFerdinand VI.[29][3]
Royal burial vaults in the Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII - burial niches in Pantheon of the Kings; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 - burial chapels in Pantheon of the Infantes; A - garden of the Monastery; B - altar in Pantheon of the Kings; C - basement of the Monastery
The remains of Alfonso XIII's third sonInfante Juan, Count of Barcelona, (d. 1993) and daughter-in-lawPrincess María de las Mercedes of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (d. 2000); (the father and mother of KingJuan Carlos I), lie at a prepared place called apudridero, or decaying chamber, awaiting interment in the Pantheon of the Kings. With the interment of these remains, all the sepulchres in the pantheon will be filled. No decision has yet been announced as to the final resting place of now-abdicated Juan Carlos,Queen Sofía,Felipe VI,Queen Letizia, and any future monarchs and consorts.
Pantheon of the Kings
There are twopudrideros at El Escorial, one for the Pantheon of the Kings and the other for the Pantheon of the Princes. These can only be visited by monks from the Monastery. In these rooms, the remains of the deceased are placed in a small leaden urn, which in turn will be placed in the marble sepulchres of the appropriate pantheon after the passage of fifty years, the estimated time necessary for the complete decomposition of the bodies.
The interment of the remains of Queen Victoria Eugenie and the Count and Countess of Barcelona in the Royal Pantheon will each constitute an exception to tradition. First, Victoria Eugenie, although the wife of a king, was never the mother of a king in the strict sense. Secondly, the Count of Barcelona never reigned as king, although he was head of the Spanish royal family between the renunciation of his father's rights on 14 January 1941 and his renunciation of his own rights in favour of his son Juan Carlos I on 14 May 1977. Thirdly, the Countess of Barcelona was the mother of a king but not the wife of a king. However, some consider the Count of Barcelona to have beende jure king of Spain from 1941 to 1977, which in turn would make him, his mother, Queen Victoria Eugenie, and his wife, the Countess of Barcelona, eligible for interment in the Pantheon of Kings.
There has already been one exception to tradition:Elisabeth of Bourbon is for the moment the only queen in the pantheon who has not been mother to a king. That is because her only son, the presumed heir to the throne, died after her but before he could become king. But she was the great-grandmother of Philip V (by her daughterMaria Theresa of Spain) and she is an ancestor of the king of Spain.
The walls of polishedToledo marble are ornamented in gold-plated bronze. All of the wood used in El Escorial comes from the ancient forests ofSagua La Grande, on the so-called Golden Coast of Cuba.
The pantheon's name in Spanish isPanteón de Infantes. Completed in 1888, this group of nine burial chapels is the final resting place of princes, princesses, and consorts other than the parents of monarchs.[30] With floors and ceiling of white marble, the tomb of PrinceJohn of Austria is especially notable.
Among the more recent interments is that ofInfante Alfonso in October 1992. The younger brother of KingJuan Carlos I, he was buried originally in Portugal, after being killed in a still-mysterious 1956 shooting at the family home inEstoril, aged 14.
In 1994, King Juan Carlos I signed a decree raising his cousin and close personal friendCarlos, Duke of Calabria to the status of a Spanishinfante, making him eligible for interment in the Pantheon of the Princes. Upon his death in October 2015, his funeral was held at El Escorial and his body placed in thepudridero, awaiting future interment in the pantheon.
Thirty-seven of the sixty available niches are filled.
Its eleven rooms showcase the tools, cranes and other materials used in the construction of the edifice, as well as reproductions of blueprints and documents related to the project.[31] The architecture gallery, which had been dormant, was subject to a major revitalisation from 2024.
Portion of the formal gardens (Gardens of the Friars) adjacent to north façade of the monastery
Constructed at the order of Philip II, a great lover of nature, these constitute an ideal place for repose and meditation.Manuel Azaña, the Socialist who served as the last president of theSecond Spanish Republic, studied in the monastery'sAugustinian-run school and mentions them in hisMemorias (Memoirs) and his playEl jardín de los frailes (The Garden of the Friars). Students at the school still use it today to study and pass the time.[citation needed]
The Escorial has three libraries. One is located behind the Chorus of the basilica. Another, within the monastery itself, used to be distributed to the different cells and rooms of the monks and that the Augustine monks have gradually managed to make their own. Finally, the Royal Library, which is public and exists under a specialpapal bull of protection.[32]
From the beginning, the Royal Library was meant to be a monumental work of art, and its execution was commissioned to prominent architects of the moment:Juan de Toledo andJuan de Herrera, who shared the King'sneoplatonic views and who also designed the library's shelves. It constituted, along with the basilica, the heart of the entire project, and the project was redrafted several times to accommodate changes in the organization of the library itself. As was usual for Juan de Herrera's work, it was the most advanced of its kind in Europe. It was the first library on the continent that broke with medieval design.Domenico Fontana was inspired by Herrera's design, after a visit, for his design of theVatican Library.[32] Philip was involved in every part of the design process of the library.
The library of El Escorial.
The Royal Library, like everything else in El Escorial, forms part of a larger symbolic structure and has symbolic meaning. It links the monastery and the seminary across the principal axis of the building, symbolizing the union of the spiritual and physical world. The books on the profane subjects—such as history, geography, and botany—are located in the part closest to the entrance. The library corridors branch out into different sections just to re-converge in the end, and as they advance towards the basilica, the subjects are the more abstract forms—such as poetry, grammar, and mathematics. The subjects closest to the basilica are those the King conceived as being the most abstract distillations of the others, and the closest to the origin, which was God in the Basilica: theology, geometry, and mathematics. The visitor must leave the noisy world behind and walk through the halls of knowledge in a specific, comprehensible order from concreteness to abstraction before being able to reach God and understand His message, a notion quite in line with both Charles I and Philip II'shermeticist view of religion.[33][34][35]
During Philip II's reign, the library introduced a novel way of arranging the library's bookcases or "book presses". Until then most book presses were combined with desks and stood at right angles to the library's walls. This system was known as the "stall system" and allowed light from the library's windows to illuminate the shelves. Phillip's library began using a "wall system", placing the bookcases along the walls.[36]
Currently the library has more than 40,000 volumes, located in a great hall 54 metres (177 ft) in length, 9 metres (30 ft) wide, and 10 metres (33 ft) tall, with marble floors and beautifully carved wood shelves. De Herrera and Italian construction engineer Giuseppe Flecha y Gamboa were careful to consider the security of the library's holdings in armarios (large bookcases), as well as their display, safeguards against fire hazards, and use of available natural lighting. This library was a Renaissance statement of power, majesty, prowess, and intellectual world leadership, designed for both the preservation of the old (binding multiple cultural histories into a single Catholic Spanish culture) and discovery of the new (imprinted by that culture).[37]
The fire of 1671, which engulfed the library,[10][6] destroyed about 5,280 handwrittencodices, but the printed collections were saved. The printed collection of the library is made up of more than 600incunabulas, 10,608 books from the 16th century, 2,179 books from the 17th century, and an increasing number of books from the 18th century. The manuscript collection is made up of a few thousands of medievalcodices.[38]
Philip II donated his personal collection of documents to the building, and also undertook the acquisition of the finest libraries and works of Western EuropeanHumanism. During Phillip's reign, there was an entire room dedicated to ancient manuscripts, most of them in Latin, many in Greek, but also some in Hebrew,Aramaic, Arabic, Italian, French, and Spanish.[6] There were approximately 1,800 Arabic titles.[36]: 86 The first of those books were acquired in 1571 throughJuan Paez de Castro.[39] After that many books were obtained as a "peace price" during the many battles of theSpanish Empire with theOttoman Empire. As part of his active efforts, in 1571 Philip II bought a large portion of the collection ofGonzalo Pérez, one of his advisors. This meant 57 original Greek manuscripts from Sicily, and 112 Latin ones, from Calabria. He also bought 315 original volumes, in Greek and Arabic, from Juan Páez de Castro's personal library. The King charged specific ambassadors with traveling through his empire and neighboring kingdoms searching and buying the best for El Escorial's library. These ambassadors were coordinated by the head librarian, who had total authority to direct their movements, and who stayed in contact with them through all their travels.Diego Guzmán de Silva was one such ambassador and made one of the most important purchases for the library during his time in Venice: an ancient collection of Greek manuscripts and Latin codices (1569–1577).[40]
An inventory prepared in 1576 counted 4,546 volumes, over 2,000 manuscripts, and 2,500 printed books. That same year the library ofDiego Hurtado de Mendoza, the most valuable in Spain at the time, was bought. It included 850 codices and over 1,000 printed volumes. At this point, the size of the library was such thatBenito Arias Montano had to be specially hired to organize the books and classify them by language, in addition to subject.[41] In the 1580s the Library acquired some of its most unique pieces.Jorge Beteta donated a manuscript of theConcilios visigóticos (theVisigothic Councils) from the ninth century. Philip acquired several books from the Library of Granada, that belonged toIsabella I of Castile, including herLibro de Horas of astonishing visual beauty.[42][43] Other valuable libraries acquired by Philip were those ofPedro Fajardo, and ofAntonio Agustín, one of the largest in Spain at the time. About a thousand of these books are still in El Escorial, with many others having been sent to the Vatican. The King actively purchased rare books—often on esoteric, scientific, or theological subjects—from the East. He also collected and preserved over four hundred booksprohibited by the Inquisition, which he agreed should not be available for those likely to "misunderstand" them but only to experts. By 1602, the library had a large cartographic collection and over 150 mathematical instruments.[44]Philip II left in hiswill a pension for the Escorial Library, to ensure that it would still be able to acquire new volumes.
Philip III continued his father's policy of protection and enrichment of the library, even though he was not theologically inclined. In addition to continuing the search for, and purchase of, especially valuable and old books, he promulgated a new decree, according to which the library of El Escorial was to receive a copy of every book published inside the empire. During his reign the orders of continuing to search for books for the library were still in place.Arias Montano donated a large number of original Hebrew manuscripts, and AdmiralLuis Fajardo brought back the completeZaydani library captured during his wars with SultanMuley Zidán.
The library reached its peak underPhilip IV. In 1671 a great fire destroyed 5280codices; the main hall, in which the printed books were kept, was saved.[38] Among the most important losses were theConcilios visigóticos and theHistoria natural de las Indias (Natural History of the Indies), a 19-volume encyclopedia on biology and botany byFrancisco Hernández de Toledo. After the fire, the priestAntonio de San José spent over 25 years reclassifying and taking inventories of the surviving copies. His list of surviving books counted 45,000. Shortly after, as the Habsburg dynasty came to its end and theBourbons took the throne after theWar of the Spanish Succession, a further loss took place, as the Bourbon kings reversed the trend of acquiring books for the library and instead proceeded to take books to send to France or to their own libraries.[45]
Following a rule approved by theCouncil of Trent dealing with the veneration of saints, Philip II donated to the monastery one of the largestreliquaries in all of Catholic Christendom. The collection consists of some 7,500 relics, which are stored in 570 sculpted reliquaries[6] designed by Juan de Herrera, with most being constructed by the artisanJuan de Arphe y Villafañe. These reliquaries are found in highly varied forms (heads, arms, pyramidal cases,coffers, etc.) and are distributed throughout the monastery, with the most important being concentrated in the basilica.
In the basilica, the relics are kept within two altarpieces, with the door panels painted byFederico Zuccari. Within the altarpiece depicting the "Annunciation") are relics of female saints; its companion includes the relics of male saints.[46]
In 2024 El Escorial was being reorganised for visitors over two years, funded by €6.5m from theEU. Instead of using a side entrance, visitors enter through the imposing Patio of Kings courtyard. The Patio of the Evangelists, a garden with fountains and statues, will be open to visitors. The painting and architecture galleries, long dormant, are being reopened, reorganised and revitalised. The building is being updated with LED lighting, electric vehicle charging points, and solar panels.[31]
Juan de Herrera also designed the Casas de Oficios (Official Buildings) opposite the monastery's north façade; and his successor,Francisco de Mora, designed the Casa de la Compaña (Company Quarters).[citation needed]
^Mary Crawford Volk; Kubler, George (1 March 1987). "Building the Escorial".The Art Bulletin.69 (1). The Art Bulletin, Vol. 69, No. 1:150–153.doi:10.2307/3051093.JSTOR3051093.
^René Taylor 1. Arquitectura y Magia. Consideraciones sobre la Idea de El Escorial, Ediciones Siruela, Madrid, enhanced from monograph in Rudolph Wittkower's 1968 festschrift. 2. Hermetism and the Mystical Architecture of the Society of Jesus in "Baroque Art: The Jesuit Contribution" by Rudolf Wittkower & Irma Jaffe
^Tenth International Symposium on High Performance Computer Architecture (2004)."El Escorial"(PDF). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 2 March 2007. Retrieved5 June 2008.
^The Latin cross, with its long descending arm, is the form most familiar to western Christians as the cross on which Christ was supposed to have been crucified.
^Michelangelo died in 1564, scarcely a year after the first stones at El Escorial were laid, and Titian, when asked to come to Spain, respectfully refused on the basis of his advanced age.
^abReal Monasterio-Palacio De El Escorial: Estudios Inéditos En Commemoración Del IV Centenario De La Terminación De Las Obras. Madrid: Consejo Superior De Investigaciones Científicas, Centro De Estudios Históricos, Departamento De Arte Diego Velázquez, 1987
^Duxfield, Andrew. Christopher Marlowe and the Failure to Unify. Oxon: Routledge, 2016.
^Vallejo, Javier Morales. El Símbolo Hecho Piedra: El Escorial, Un Laberinto Descifrado. Barcelona: Áltera, 2008.
^Naharro, B. & Nuno, J. A Treasury of Mathematics: The Library of El Escorial Revisited.
^DE ANDRÉS, G., Perfil histórico de la Real Biblioteca de El Escorial, en SANTIAGO PAÉZ, E. (coord.), El Escorial en la Biblioteca Nacional. IV Centenario, 1ª Edición, Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 1985, pp. 561-565,ISBN84-505-2529-2.
^Purtuondo, Maria (2010). "The Study of Nature, Philosophy, and the Royal Library of San Lorenzo of the Escorial".Renaissance Quarterly.63 (4):1106–1150.doi:10.1086/658508.S2CID191268336.
^DE ANDRÉS, G., Real Biblioteca de El Escorial, 1ª Edición, Madrid: Aldus, 1970, DL: M. 20720-1970
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