Egypt–Mesopotamia relations were the relations between the civilizations ofancient Egypt andMesopotamia, in theMiddle East. They seem to have developed from the 4th millennium BCE, starting in theUruk period for Mesopotamia (circa 4000–3100 BCE) and the half a millennium youngerGerzean culture ofPrehistoric Egypt (circa 3500–3200 BCE), and constituted a largely one way body of influences from Mesopotamia into Egypt.^[3][4]

Prior to a specific Mesopotamian influence there had already been a longstanding influence fromWest Asia into Egypt,North Africa and even into some parts of theHorn of Africa and theSahel in the form of theNeolithic Revolution which from circa 9000 BCE diffused advanced agricultural practices and technology, gene-flow, certain domesticated animals and crops and the likely spread ofProto-Afroasiatic language into the region, withSemitic languages that had evolved in West Asia circa 4000 BCE being introduced via the Arabian Peninsula and Levant into the Horn of Africa and North Africa respectively after 1000 BCE.

Mesopotamian influences can be seen in the visual arts of Egypt, in architecture, in technology, weaponry, in imported products, religious imagery, economic practices, in agriculture and livestock, in genetic input, and also in the likely transfer ofwriting from Mesopotamia to Egypt^[4] and generated "deep-seated" parallels in the early stages of both cultures. A similar Mesopotamian influence during this period is seen inElam inAncient Iran, theLevant,Anatolia and northern parts of theArabian Peninsula.^[2]

Mesopotamian king on Egyptian prehistoric knife
(3300–3200 BCE)

Egyptian pre-historicGebel el-Arak Knife. Dated 3300–3200 BCE,Abydos,Egypt.Louvre Museum^[5]

Mesopotamian king asMaster of Animals on the top of the handle. This work of art both shows the influence of Mesopotamia onEgypt at an early date, in an example of ancient Egypt–Mesopotamia relations, and the state of Mesopotamian royal iconography during theUruk period.^[5][6][7]

Similar portrait of an Uruk King-Priest with a brimmed round hat and large beard, bare-chested with a straight skirt. Uruk, 3300-3000 BC.^[8][9]

There was generally a high-level of trade betweenAncient Egypt and theNear East throughout thePre-dynastic period of Egypt, during theNaqada II (3600–3350 BCE) andNaqada III (3350–2950 BCE) phases.^[7] These were contemporary with theLate Uruk (3600–3100 BCE) andJemdet Nasr (3100–2900 BCE) periods inMesopotamia.^[7] The main period of cultural influence, particularly consisting in the transfer of Mesopotamian imagery, symbols and technology to Egypt, is considered to have lasted about 250 years, during theNaqada II toDynasty I periods.^[10]

Distinctly foreign objects and art forms entered Egypt during this period, indicating contacts with several parts ofWestern Asia. The designs that were emulated by Egyptian artists are numerous: theUruk "Priest-King" with his tunic and brimmed hat in the posture of theMaster of animals, theserpopards, wingedgriffins, snakes around rosettes, boats with high prows, all characteristic of long established Mesopotamian art of theLate Uruk (Uruk IV, c. 3350–3200 BCE) period.^[11][12] The same "Priest-King" is visible in several older Mesopotamian works of art of the end of the Uruk period, such as theBlau Monuments, cylinder seals and statues.^[13] Objects such as theGebel el-Arak knife handle, which has patently Mesopotamian relief carvings on it, have been found in Egypt,^[3] and the silver which appears in this period can only have been obtained fromAsia Minor.^[14]

Red-slipped spouted pottery items dating to around 3500 BCE (Naqada II C/D), which were probably used for pouring water, beer or wine, suggest that Egypt was in contact with and being influenced by Mesopotamia around that time.^[15] This type of pottery was manufactured in Egypt, with Egyptian clay, but its shape, particularly the spout, is certainly Mesopotamian in origin.^[15] Such vessels were new and rare in pre-Dynastic Egypt, but had been commonly manufactured in the Mesopotamian cities ofNippur andUruk for centuries.^[15] This indicated that Egyptians were familiar with Mesopotamian types of pottery.^[15]The discovery of these vessels initially encouraged the development of thedynastic race theory, according to which Mesopotamians would have established the first Pharaonic line, but is now considered by many scholars to be simply indicative of cultural influence and borrowings circa 3500 BCE, although there is an established gene flow from Mesopotamia and West Asia into Egypt .^[15]

Spouted jars of Mesopotamian design start to appear in Egypt in theNaqada II period.^[7] Various Uruk pottery vases and containers have been found in Egypt in Naqada contexts, confirming that Mesopotamian finished goods were imported into Egypt, although the past contents of the jars have not been determined yet.^[16] Scientific analysis of ancient wine jars in Abydos has shown there was some high-volume wine trade with theLevant and Mesopotamia during this period.^[17]

Egyptian disk-shapedmacehead 4000–3400 BCE

Egyptian macehead, 3500–3300 BCE

Egyptians used traditional disk-shapedmaceheads during the early phase ofNaqada culture, circa 4000–3400 BCE. At the end of the period, the disk-shaped macehead was replaced by the militarily superior Mesopotamian-style pear-shaped macehead as seen on theNarmer Palette.^[18] The Mesopotamian macehead was much heavier with a wider impact surface, and was capable of giving much more damaging blows than the original Egyptian disk-shaped macehead.^[18]

Jemdet Nasr-style cylinder seal,Naqada tomb,Naqada II period.^[19]

Archaic Egyptiancylinder Seal, 3100–2900 BCE

Egyptian cylinder seal First or Second Dynasty, 3100–2686 BCE

It is generally thought thatcylinder seals were introduced from Mesopotamia to Egypt during theNaqada II period.^[19][20] Cylinder seals, some coming from Mesopotamia and alsoElam inAncient Iran, and some made locally in Egypt copying earlier Mesopotamian and Elamite designs in a stylized manner, have been discovered in the tombs ofUpper Egypt dating to Naqada II and III, particularly inHierakonpolis.^[7][10] Mesopotamian cylinder seals have been found in theGerzean context of Naqada II, inNaqada andHiw, attesting to the expansion of the MesopotamianJemdet Nasr culture as far as Egypt at the end of the 4th millennium BCE.^[21][19]

In Egypt, cylinder seals suddenly appear without any local antecedents from around Naqada II c-d (3500–3300 BCE).^[22] The designs are similar to and clearly inspired by those of Mesopotamia, where they were invented during the early 4th millennium BCE, during theUruk period, as an evolutionary step from variousaccounting systems and seals going back as early as the early 7th millennium BCE in Mesopotamia.^[22] The earliest Egyptian cylinder seals are clearly similar to earlier and contemporaryUruk seals down to Naqada II-d (circa 3300 BCE), and may even have been manufactured by Mesopotamian craftsmen and subsequently sold to the Egyptians, but they start to diverge from circa 3300 BCE to become more Egyptian in character.^[22]

Cylinder seals were made in Egypt as late as theSecond Intermediate Period, but they were essentially replaced byscarabs from the time of theMiddle Kingdom.^[19]

Lapis lazuli was imported in great quantity by Egypt, and already used in many tombs of theNaqada II period. Lapis lazuli probably originated in what is today northernAfghanistan, as no other sources are known, and had to be transported across theIranian plateau toMesopotamia as part of the established Mesopotamian trade network with South and Central Asia, and from there sold on to Egypt by the Mesopotamians.^[23][16]

In addition, Egyptian objects were created which clearly mimic Mesopotamian forms, although not slavishly.^[24] Cylinder seals appear in Egypt, as well as recessed paneling architecture, the Egyptian reliefs on cosmetic palettes are clearly made in the same style as the earlier and contemporary MesopotamianUruk culture, and the ceremonial mace heads which turn up from the lateGerzean and earlySemainean are crafted in the Mesopotamian "pear-shaped" style, instead of the Egyptian native style.^[25] The first man/animal composite creatures in Egypt were directly copied from earlier Mesopotamian designs.^[26] It is also considered as certain that the Egyptians adopted from Mesopotamia the practice of marking the sealing of jars with engraved cylinder seals for informational purposes.^[27]

Recessed niches and false doors

Naked devotee offering libations to a temple ofInanna,Ur, c. 2500 BCE.^[28]

Tomb chapel false door, circa 2450 BCE, Egypt.

Egyptian architecture also was influenced, as it adopted various elements of earlierMesopotamian temple andcivic architecture.^[29]

Recessed niches in particular, which are characteristic of Mesopotamian temple architecture, were adopted for the design offalse doors in thetombs of theFirst Dynasty andSecond Dynasty, from the time of theNaqada III period (circa 3000 BCE).^[29][30] It is unknown if the transfer of this design was the result of Mesopotamian builders and architects in Egypt, or if temple designs on imported Mesopotamian seals may have been a sufficient source of inspiration for Egyptian architects to manage themselves.^[29]

The design of theziggurat, which appeared in Mesopotamia in the late 5th millennium BCE, was clearly a precursor to and an influence on theEgyptian pyramids, especially the stepped designs of the oldest pyramids (step pyramid), the earliest of which (Pyramid of Zoser atSaqqara) dates to circa 2600 BCE, well over two thousand years younger than Mesopotamian ziggurats/step pyramids.^[31] This again strongly suggests early cultural and technological influence on Egypt by Mesopotamia.^[31]

Ziggurats and Egyptian pyramids

The original Mesopotamian Anuziggurat dates to around 4000 BCE

ThePyramid of Djoser, the first Egyptian pyramid, dates circa 2670–2650 BCE

The original pyramidal structure, the Mesopotamian "AnuZiggurat" dates to around 4000 BCE, and the White Temple was built on top of it circa 3500 BCE.^[32] The design of the ziggurat was probably a precursor to that of theEgyptian pyramids, the earliest of which dates to circa 2600 BCE.^[31]

Serpopard design in Mesopotamia and Egypt

Urukcylinder seal with serpopard design. Theserpopard design of Egyptian palettes was adopted from Mesopotamian serpopard designs.^[11]

EgyptianNarmer Palette with serpopard design.

The route of this trade is difficult to determine, but direct Egyptian contact withCanaan in the Levant does not predate the early dynastic era, so it is usually assumed to have been by sea trade.^[1] During the time when thedynastic race theory was still popular, it was proposed that Mesopotamian sailors circumnavigatedArabia, but aMediterranean route, probably by middlemen through the Canaanite port ofByblos, is also likely, as evidenced by the presence of CanaaniteByblian objects in Egypt.^[1]Glyptic art also seems to have played a key role, through the circulation of decorated cylinder seals across theLevant, a commonhinterland of both empires, particularly Mesopotamia.^[33]

The intensity of the exchanges suggest however that the contacts between Egypt and Mesopotamia were often direct, rather than merely through middlemen or through trade.^[2] Uruk had known colonial outposts of as far asHabuba Kabira, in modernSyria, insuring their presence in the Levant.^[34] Numerous Uruk cylinder seals have also been uncovered there.^[34] There have been suggestions that Uruk may have had a colonial outpost and a form ofcolonial presence in northern Egypt.^[34] The site ofButo in particular was suggested, but it has been rejected as a possible candidate.^[29]

The fact that so many Gerzean sites are at the mouths ofwadis which lead to theRed Sea may indicate some amount of trade via the Red Sea (thoughByblian trade potentially could have crossed the Sinai and then be taken to the Red Sea).^[35] Also, it is considered unlikely that something as complicated as recessed panel architecture could have worked its way into Egypt by proxy, and a possibly significant contingent of Mesopotamian migrants or settlers is often suspected.^[1]

These early contacts probably acted as a sort of catalyst for the development of Egyptian culture, particularly in respect to the inception of writing, the codification of royal and vernacular imagery and architectural innovations.^[2]

These imports from Mesopotamia appear to have been quite intensive during the lateGerzean period (lateNaqada II), and correspond to the Protoliterate b and c cultures of Mesopotamia.^[36] "Naqada" literally means "Golden City", and the city was at the center of the developing trade of gold from the eastern desert of Egypt.^[37] This may have stimulated the direct involvement of Mesopotamian traders, who, accompanied by artists and various skilled personnel, may have introduced Mesopotamian styles and practices.^[37] The exploitation of gold may also have stimulated the development of the first organized proto-state structures in Egypt.^[37]

• 
  Egyptian palettes, such as theNarmer Palette (3200–3000 BCE), borrow elements of Mesopotamian iconography, in particular thesauropod design ofUruk.^[38]
• 
  Beads of lapis lazuli and travertine, circa 3650–3100 BCE. Naqada II–Naqada III.
• 
  Egyptian statuette, 3300–3000 BCE. Thelapis lazuli material is thought to have been imported through Mesopotamia fromAfghanistan.Ashmolean.^[23][16]
• 
  Egyptian necklace and pendant, using lapis lazuli imported from Afghanistan, possibly by Mesopotamian traders,Naqada II circa 3500 BCE, British Museum EA57765 EA57586.^[39][40][41]

While there is clear evidence theNaqada II culture borrowed abundantly from Mesopotamia, there is also a commonly held view that many of the achievements of the laterFirst Dynasty were also the result of a long period of indigenous cultural and political development.^[43] Such developments are much older than the Naqada II period,^[44] the Naqada II period had a large degree of continuity with the Naqada I period,^[45] and the changes which did happen during the Naqada periods happened over significant amounts of time.^[46]

Although there are many examples of Mesopotamian influence in Egypt in the 4th millennium BCE, the reverse is not true, and there are no traces of Egyptian influence in Mesopotamia at any time, clearly indicating a one way flow of ideas.^[47] Only very few EgyptianNaqada period object have been found beyond Egypt, and generally in its vicinity, such as a rareNaqada III Egyptiancosmetic palette in the shape of a fish, of the end of 4th millennium BCE, found inAshkelon orGaza.^[48]

Early Egyptologists such asFlinders Petrie were proponents of theDynastic race theory which hypothesised that the first Egyptian chieftains and rulers were themselves of Mesopotamian origin,^[49] but this view has been abandoned among modern scholars.^[50][51]

The current position of modern scholarship is that the Egyptian civilization was an indigenous Nile Valley development and that the archaeological evidence "strongly supports anAfrican origin"^[52] of the ancient Egyptians.^{[50][53][54][55]}

It is generally thought thatEgyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a century or so afterSumerian script, and were probably invented under the influence of the latter",^[59] and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from SumerianMesopotamia".^[60][61] The two writing systems are in fact quite similar in their initial stages, relying heavily on pictographic forms and then evolving a parallel system for the expression of phonetic sounds.^[2]

Standard reconstructions of thedevelopment of writing generally place the development of the Sumerianproto-cuneiform script before the development of Egyptian hieroglyphs, with the strong suggestion the former influenced the latter.^[56]

There is however a lack of direct evidence that Mesopotamian writing influenced Egyptian form, and "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".^[62] Some scholars point out that "a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."^[63] Since the 1990s, the discovery of glyphs on clay tags atAbydos, dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, may challenge the classical notion according to which the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one,^[64][65][66] although perhaps tellingly, Egyptian writing does make a 'sudden' appearance at that time with no antecedents or precursors, while on the contrary Mesopotamia already had a long evolutionary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to circa 8000 BCE, followed by Proto-Cuneiform.^[67][17] Pittman proposes that the Abydos clay tags are almost identical to contemporary clay tags fromUruk,Mesopotamia.^[68]

Egyptian scholar Gamal Mokhtar argued that the inventory of hieroglyphic symbols derived from "fauna and flora used in the signs [which] are essentially African" and in "regards to writing, we have seen that a purely Nilotic, hence African origin not only is not excluded, but probably reflects the reality" although he acknowledged the geographical location of Egypt made it a receptacle for many influences.^[69] According toFrank Yurco, "Egyptian writing arose in NaqadanUpper Egypt andA-Group Nubia, and not in the Delta cultures, where the directWestern Asian contact was made, further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument".^[70]

• 
  Tablet with Mesopotamianproto-cuneiform pictographic characters (end of 4th millennium BCE),Uruk III.
• 
  Mesopotamian pierced label, with symbol "EN" meaning "Master", the reverse of the plaque has the symbol for GoddessInanna. Uruk circa 3000 BCE. Louvre Museum AO 7702
• 
  Designs on some of the labels or token fromAbydos,Egypt, carbon-dated to circa 3400–3200 BCE.^[17][67] They are virtually identical with contemporary clay tags fromUruk,Mesopotamia.^[71]
• 
  Labels with some of the earliestEgyptian hieroglyphs from the tomb of Egyptian kingMenes (3200–3000 BCE)
• 
  Ivory plaque of Menes (3200–3000 BCE)

Hegemonistic kingship

Narmer Palette (circa 3000 BCE). The Egyptian symbol of the king smiting his enemies with a mace was adopted centuries later by the dynasts of Mesopotamia.^[72]

Bare-chestedSumerian kingEannatum smiting an enemy with a mace. The dynastic bird also shares the same position.Stele of the Vultures (circa 2500–2400 BCE).^[72]

After this early period of exchange, and the direct introduction of Mesopotamian components into Egyptian culture, Egypt soon started to assert its own style from theEarly Dynastic Period (3150–2686 BCE), theNarmer palette being seen as a turning point.^[73]

Egypt seems to have provided some artistic feedback to Mesopotamia at the time of theEarly Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia (2900–2334 BCE).^[72] This is especially the case with royal iconography: the figure of the king smiting his enemies with a mace, and the depiction of dead enemies being eaten by birds of prey appeared in Egypt from the time of theNarmer palette, and were then adopted centuries later (possibly from Egypt) by Mesopotamian rulersEannatum andSargon of Akkad.^[72] This depiction appears to be part of an artistic system to promote "hegemonistic kingship".^[72] Another example is the usage of decorated mace heads as a symbol of kingship.^[72]

There is also a possibility that the depictions of the Mesopotamian king with a muscular, naked, upper body fighting his enemies in a quadrangular posture, as seen in theStele of Naram-Sin or statues ofGudea (all circa 2000 BCE) were derived from Egyptian sculpture, which by that time had already been through its Golden Age during theOld Kingdom.^[74]

For the first time in 2025, a study was able to give insights into the genetic background of Early Dynastic Egyptians, by sequencing the whole genome of anOld Kingdom adult male Egyptian of relatively high-status, radiocarbon-dated to 2855–2570 BCE, with funerary practices archeologically attributed to theThird andFourth Dynasty, which was excavated in Nuwayrat (Nuerat, نويرات), in a cliff 265 km south of Cairo.^[76][77] Before this study, whole-genome sequencing of ancient Egyptians from the early periods of Egyptian Dynastic history had not yet been accomplished, mainly because of the problematic DNA preservation conditions in Egypt.^[76]

The corpse had been placed intact in a large circular clay pot without embalming, and then installed inside a cliff tomb, which accounts for the comparatively good level of conservation of the skeleton and its DNA.^[76]

Most of his genome derives from Neolithic North African ancestry, itself rooted in a Levantine expansion into northeast Africa ~8,000 years ago. The diffusion of this ancestry, later admixed with local components as seen in both Skhirat-Rouazi individuals and eastern African pastoralist groups, correlates closely with the introduction of southwest Asian domesticates such as sheep, goats, and cattle, coinciding with the rise of Saharan cattle pastoralism and the appearance of Ashakar Ware pottery in the Maghreb, and may have contributed to the early dispersal of Afro-Asiatic languages across North Africa.^[78]

The remaining ~20% of his genetic ancestry derives from populations of the easternFertile Crescent, includingMesopotamia.^[76] The resulting genetic profile is most closely represented by a two-source model, in which 77.6% ± 3.8% of the ancestry corresponded to genomes from the Middle Neolithic Moroccan site of Skhirat-Rouazi (dated to 4780–4230 BCE), which itself consists of predominantly (76.4 ± 4.0%) Levant Neolithic ancestry and (23.6 ± 4.0%) minorIberomaurusian ancestry, while the remainder (22.4% ± 3.8%) was most closely related to known genomes from NeolithicMesopotamia (dated to 9000-8000 BCE).^[76][79]

In a three-source model, an additional stream of Neolithic/Chalcolithic Levant ancestry appears as a third, smaller component.^[76] A 2022 DNA study had already shown evidence of gene flow from the Mesopotamian and Zagros regions into surrounding areas, including Anatolia, during the Neolithic, but not as far as Egypt yet.^[79]

In terms of chronology, Egypt was one of the first areas to adopt the Neolithic package emerging from West Asia as early as the 6th millennium BCE.^[76] Population genetics in the Nile Valley observed a marked change around this period, as shown by odontometric and dental tissue changes.^[76] Cultural exchange and trade between the two regions then continued through the 4th millennium BCE, as shown by the transfer of MesopotamianLate Uruk period features to the Nile Valley of the laterPredynastic Period.^[76] Migrations flows from Mesopotamia accompanied such cultural exchanges, possibly through the sea routes of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea or through yet un-sampled intermediaries in the Levant, which could explain the relative smallness of genetic influence from known Chalcolithic/Bronze Age Levantines populations.^[76]

The authors acknowledged some limitations of the study such as the results deriving from one single Egyptian genome and that DNA analysis whilst indicative of population origin does not provide any evidence in relation to skin colour or facial hair.^[81]

Overall, the 2025 study "provides direct evidence of genetic ancestry related to the eastern Fertile Crescent in ancient Egypt".^[76] This genetic connection suggests that there had been ancient migration flows from the eastern Fertile Crescent to Egypt, in addition to the exchanges of objects and imagery (domesticated animals and plants, writing systems...) already observed.^[76] This suggests a pattern of wide cultural and demographic expansion from the Mesopotamian region, which affected both Anatolia and Egypt during this period.^[76]

Indus Valley Civilizationetched carnelian beads.

Bead excavated in Egypt, circa 1800 BCE.

Rare etched carnelian beads have been found in Egypt, which are thought to have been imported from the Indus Valley Civilization via Mesopotamian states ofSumer,Akkad andAssyria. This is related to the flourishing of the Indus Valley Civilization, and the development ofIndus-Mesopotamia relations from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Examples of etched carnelian beads found in Egypt typically date to the LateMiddle Kingdom (c. 1800 BCE). They were found in tombs and represented luxury items, often as the centerpiece of jewelry.[82]^[83]

West Asiatic procession to Egypt (c.1900 BCE)

A group of West Asiatic foreigners labelled asAamu (ꜥꜣmw), including the leading man with aNubian ibex labelled asAbisha theHyksos (𓋾𓈎𓈉 ḥḳꜣ-ḫꜣsw,Heqa-kasut for "Hyksos"). Tomb of12th-dynasty officialKhnumhotep II, atBeni Hasan (circa 1900 BCE).^[84][85][86]

Egypt records various exchanges with Semitic West Asian foreigners from around 1900 BCE, as in the paintings of the tomb ofKhnumhotep II atBeni Hassan.

From circa 1650 BCE, theHyksos,Semitic foreigners of CanaaniteLevantine origin, established theFifteenth Dynasty of Egypt (1650–1550 BCE) based at the city ofAvaris in theNile Delta, from where they ruled the northern part of the country.^[87][85]Khyan, one of theHyksos rulers, is known for his wide-ranging contacts, as objects in his name have been found atKnossos andHattusha indicating diplomatic contacts with theMinoans ofCrete and theHittites andHurrians ofAnatolia, and a sphinx with his name was bought on the art market atBaghdad and might demonstrate diplomatic contacts with the Mesopotamian states ofAssyria andBabylonia, possibly with the firstKassites rulerGandash.^[88][89][90]

Exchanges would again flourish between the two cultures from the period of theNew Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1550 – c. 1069 BCE) and theMiddle Assyrian Empire (c. 1392 – c. 1025 BCE) this time an exchange between two mature and well-established civilizations. These exchanges also included tributes of gold paid toAssyrian kings during the 16th and 15th centuries BCE, in an attempt to ellicit their support in Egypt's conflict with theHittite andHurrian-Mitanni empires.^{[citation needed]} Assyria eventually annexed much of the territory of the former, and completely destroyed the latter, and the growing power of Assyria may have been a factor in Egypt withdrawing from their Levantine colonies, which were subsequently annexed by theMiddle Assyrian Empire which came to dominate Western Asia and the East Mediterranean. In the 11th century BCE the Assyrian kingAshur-bel-kala is known to have received a tribute of exotic animals and plants from Egypt for his Zoological and Botanical gardens inAssur.^{[citation needed]}

In the last phase of historic exchanges during theNeo-Assyrian Empire (935 BC-605 BCE), theAssyrian conquest of Egypt occurred, and Assyrian rule and influence lasted till 655 BCE.^[91][92] after Assyria had invaded and conquered Egypt with remarkable speed, defeating and driving out theNubianKushite Empire, the 25th Dynasty of Egypt, which had provoked Assyria by repeatedly but unsuccessfully attempting to gain an influence in the Southern Levant and Northern Arabian Peninsula by instigating and supporting rebellions by Israelites, Judeans, Moabites, Edomites, Phoenicians and Arabs against Assyrian rule during the reigns ofShalmaneser IV,Sargon II andSennacherib.

The Egyptian26th Dynasty had been installed in 663 BCE as native puppet rulers by the Assyrians after the destruction and deportation of the foreign Nubians of the 25th Dynasty by kingEsarhaddon and then came under the dominion of his successorsAshurbanipal. However, during the fall of the Neo Assyrian Empire between 612 and 599 BCE, Egypt attempted to aid its former masters probably due to the fear that without a strong Assyrian buffer they too would be overrun, having already been raided by maraudingScythians. As a result, Egypt came into conflict with Assyria's fellow Mesopotamian state ofBabylonia, which along with theMedes,Persians,Chaldeans,Cimmerians andScythians, amongst others, were fighting to throw off Assyrian rule, and PharaohNecho II fought alongside the last Assyrian emperorAshur-uballit II (612-c.605 BCE) againstNabopolassar,Cyaxares and their allies for a time. After the Assyrian Empire fell, Egypt engaged in a number of conflicts with Babylonia during the late 7th and early 6th century BCE in the Levant, before being driven from the region byNebuchadnezzar II of Babylonia.

TheAchaemenid Empire, though Iranic and not Mesopotamian, was heavily influenced by Mesopotamia in its art, architecture, written script and civil administration, the Persians having previously been subjects of Assyria for centuries,invaded Egypt and established satrapies, founding the AchaemenidTwenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (525–404 BCE) andThirty-first Dynasty of Egypt (343–332 BCE).

• 
  Egyptian statue ofDarius I
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  Darius asPharaoh of Egypt at theTemple of Hibis
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  Jar ofXerxes I, with his name in hieroglyphs and cuneiform

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