Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along theNile Delta back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered acradle of civilisation,Ancient Egypt saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government.[22] Egypt was an early and importantcentre of Christianity, lateradopting Islam from the seventh century onwards.Alexandria, Egypt’s former capital and currently second largest city, was a hub of global knowledge through itsLibrary. Cairo became the capital of theFatimid Caliphate in the tenth century and of the subsequentMamluk Sultanate in the 13th century. Egypt then became part of theOttoman Empire in 1517, until its local rulerMuhammad Ali established modern Egypt as an autonomousKhedivate in 1867. The country was thenoccupied by theBritish Empire along withSudan and gained independence in 1922 asa monarchy.
The English name "Egypt" is derived from theAncient Greek "Aígyptos" ("Αἴγυπτος"), viaMiddle French "Egypte" andLatin "Aegyptus". It is reflected in early GreekLinear B tablets as "a-ku-pi-ti-yo".[26] The adjective "aigýpti-"/"aigýptios" was borrowed into Coptic as "gyptios", and from there intoArabic as "qubṭī", back formed into "قبط" (qubṭ), whence English "Copt". The ancient Greek geographerStrabo provided afolk etymology stating that "Αἴγυπτος" (Aigýptios) had originally evolved as acompound from "Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως" (Aegaeou huptiōs), meaning "Below the Aegean".[27] The actual derivation is thought to be fromḥwt-kꜣ-ptḥ (Hutkaptah,Late Egyptian pronunciation[ħəjˌkojpəˈtaħ]), "Temple of theKa ofPtah," a term for the city ofMemphis.[28][29]
"Miṣr" (Arabic pronunciation:[misˤɾ]; "مِصر") is theClassical Quranic Arabic and modern official name of Egypt, while "Maṣr" (Egyptian Arabic pronunciation:[mɑsˤɾ];مَصر) is the local pronunciation inEgyptian Arabic.[30] The current name of Egypt, Misr/Misir/Misru, stems from theAncientSemitic name for it. The term originally connoted "Civilisation" or "Metropolis".[31]Classical ArabicMiṣr (Egyptian ArabicMaṣr) is directly cognate with theBiblical HebrewMiṣráyīm (מִצְרַיִם / מִצְרָיִם), meaning "the two straits", a reference to the predynastic separation ofUpper and Lower Egypt. Also mentioned in several Semitic languages asMesru,Misir andMasar.[31] The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is theAkkadian "mi-iṣ-ru" ("miṣru")[32][33] related tomiṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru, meaning "border" or "frontier".[34] TheNeo-Assyrian Empire used the derived term,Mu-ṣur.[35]
The ancient Egyptian name of the country was
(𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖)km.t, which means black land, likely referring to thefertile black soils of theNile flood plains, distinct from thedeshret (⟨dšṛt⟩), or "red land" of thedesert.[36][37] This name is commonly vocalised asKemet, but was probably pronounced[kuːmat] in ancient Egyptian.[38] The name is realised asK(h)ēmə (Bohairic Coptic:ⲭⲏⲙⲓ,Sahidic Coptic:ⲕⲏⲙⲉ) in theCoptic stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek asΧημία (Khēmía).[39][40] Another name was⟨tꜣ-mry⟩ "land of the riverbank".[41] The names ofUpper and Lower Egypt wereTa-Sheme'aw (⟨tꜣ-šmꜥw⟩) "sedgeland" andTa-Mehew (⟨tꜣ mḥw⟩) "northland", respectively.
Evidence ofrock carvings along theNile and in surrounding oases indicates early habitation. In the10th millennium BCE, a culture ofhunter-gatherers andfishers was replaced by agrain-grinding culture. Climate changes orovergrazing around 8000BCE began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming theSahara. Earlytribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agriculturaleconomy and more centralised society.[42]
By about 6000 BCE, aNeolithic culture took root in the Nile Valley.[43] During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently inUpper and Lower Egypt. TheBadarian culture and the successorNaqada series are generally regarded as precursors todynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence ofEgyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.[44]
ThePtolemaic Kingdom was aHellenistic state from southern Syria toCyrene and south to Nubia, withAlexandria as its capital and a centre ofGreek culture and trade. The Ptolemies adopted pharaonic traditions to legitimize their rule, appearing on monuments in Egyptian style and participating in local religious life.[49][50] TheLighthouse of Alexandria, built c. 280 BCE, was one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World, later destroyed by earthquakes. The last ruler,Cleopatra VII, committed suicide afterOctavian captured Alexandria, ending the dynasty and paving the way for Roman annexation. Native rebellions and dynastic disputes weakened the kingdom, facilitating its annexation by Rome.
Egypt was a wealthy imperial province of theRoman Empire, supplying grain and hosting the major city of Alexandria.[51] Governed with Roman administration and Hellenistic culture, its population primarily spokeGreek in major cities andCoptic Egyptian in rural areas.[52][53] Christianity reached Egypt in the 1st century, brought bySaint Mark the Evangelist.[54] DuringDiocletian’s reign (284–305 CE), theNew Testament had been translated into Egyptian and many Egyptian Christians were persecuted. By CE 451, a distinctCoptic Church was firmly established.[55]
The Byzantines regained control of Egypt after a briefSasanid Persian invasion early in the 7th century, until 639–42, when the country was conquered by Arab Muslim forces underAmr ibn al-As. The Arabs defeated the Byzantine armies, bringingIslam to Egypt. Alexandria briefly returned to Byzantine control in 645 but fell again to the Arabs in 646. In 654, an invasion fleet sent byConstans II was repulsed.[54] The Arabs foundedFustat, later replaced by Cairo in 969.
Under theAbbasid caliphate, Egypt was governed through deputies residing in Baghdad. Revolts occurred frequently, including the Egyptian revolt of 828 and the uprising of 831 when Copts joined Muslims against the government. Semi-independent dynasties arose, including theTulunid dynasty (868–905) andIkhshidid dynasty (935–969), which maintained Abbasid allegiance while exercising local authority.
TheFatimid Caliphate ruled Egypt from the 10th century, withCairo as their capital. After the Fatimids, theAyyubid dynasty governed until 1250, when theMamluks, a military caste ofTurco-Circassian origin, took control. The Mamluks ruled Egypt for the next three centuries and maintained control over parts of the Levant. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked trade routes connecting the Red Sea with India, Malaya, and the East Indies.[56] The mid-14th centuryBlack Death killed about 40% of Egypt’s population.[57]
Egypt was conquered by theOttoman Turks in 1517, following the defeat of theMamluk Sultanate, and became a province of theOttoman Empire. The Mamluks, who had dominated Egypt’s military and political life for centuries, retained influence under Ottoman rule, creating a semi-autonomous power structure. The Ottomans faced repeated challenges in maintaining control, while plagues and famines weakened the economy and civil society. Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six major famines, including the 1784 famine that killed roughly one-sixth of the population.[56][58]
In 1798,Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt, defeating the Mamluks at theBattle of the Pyramids. The French occupation was short-lived, but it destabilized the region and set the stage for Muhammad Ali Pasha’s rise. After the French were expelled, power struggles ensued between the Ottomans, the Mamluks, and Albanian mercenaries in Ottoman service, leaving Egypt politically fragmented.
In 1805,Muhammad Ali Pasha seized power, massacring the remaining Mamluks and establishing a dynasty that would rule Egypt until 1952. He reorganized the army along European lines, introduced conscription, and developed a centralized administration. At the same time, he promoted cash-crop agriculture, especially long-staple cotton, to integrate Egypt into global markets.[59] His successors, including Ibrahim, Abbas I, Said, andIsma'il, continued reforms in agriculture, science, and industry, and abolished slavery.
Muhammad Ali expanded Egypt’s control overNorthern Sudan (1820–1824),Syria (1833), and parts ofArabia andAnatolia, but European powers intervened in 1841, forcing him to relinquish most of his conquests. He modernized Egypt’s infrastructure, built factories and irrigation networks, and strengthened the military, while broader education remained largely limited to military and technical training.[60] The centralization of power and focus on military and economic modernization laid the foundation for Egypt’s transformation into a regional power.
In 1867, Egypt was formally granted autonomous status as avassal state of the Ottoman Empire. TheSuez Canal, completed in 1869 with French assistance, became a key strategic and commercial asset. Financial mismanagement and mounting debts led Isma’il Pasha to sell Egypt’s shares in the canal to Britain in 1875, increasing European influence. Rising discontent culminated in theUrabi revolt, after which Britain occupied Egypt in 1882, establishing a de facto protectorate while maintaining nominal Ottoman sovereignty.[61][62][63] The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899 placed Sudan under joint Egyptian and British administration, though Britain retained real control. Incidents such as theDenshawai incident in 1906 intensified nationalist sentiment, laying the groundwork for political movements that challenged both Ottoman and European dominance.
In 1914, as theOttoman Empire joined World War I alongside the Central Powers, KhediveAbbas II declared support for the Ottoman side. In response, the British deposed him and installed his brotherHussein Kamel, who assumed the title ofSultan of Egypt. Egypt was formally declared independent from the Ottoman Empire but remained under British protection.[64][65]
AfterWorld War I, nationalist sentiments surged.Saad Zaghlul and theWafd Party secured popular support, but the British exiled Zaghlul and his colleagues to Malta on 8 March 1919, prompting thefirst modern revolution. This uprising pressured the UK to issue adeclaration of independence on 22 February 1922.[66] SultanFuad I then assumed the title of King of Egypt. Despite nominal independence, Britain retained military presence and political influence.[66]
In 1923, a new constitution established aparliamentary government. The Wafd Party won a decisive victory in the 1923–24 elections, withSaad Zaghloul becoming prime minister. The1936 treaty led to British troop withdrawal from most of Egypt, except the Suez Canal. The treaty left the status ofSudan unresolved, as real control remained with Britain.[67]
DuringWorld War II, Egypt served as a strategic base forAllied operations, particularly inNorth Africa. Although Egypt declared martial law and severed diplomatic relations withAxis powers, the Egyptian army did not engage directly. Political tensions persisted, highlighted by the 1942Abdeen Palace Incident, in which British forces pressured King Farouk to install a Wafd-coalition government.[68]
After the war, nationalist and anti-British sentiments intensified. British troops largely withdrew in 1947, leaving a residual presence around the Suez Canal. Egypt’s defeat in theFirst Arab-Israeli War fueled anti-monarchy feeling. The Wafd Party’s 1950 election victory forced King Farouk to appointMostafa El-Nahas as prime minister. In 1951, Egypt unilaterally renounced the1936 treaty and demanded British troop withdrawal. The situation around the Suez Canal escalated, culminating in violent confrontations that led to the killing of 43 Egyptian policemen in 1952 by British troops. The Ismailia incident outraged Egypt and led to the subsequentBlack Saturday anti-British riots, which saw widespread destruction in Cairo.[69]
Following the1952 Revolution led by theFree Officers Movement, Egypt came under military control, and all political parties were banned. On 18 June 1953, theRepublic of Egypt was officially declared, withMuhammad Naguib serving as the first President. His presidency lasted less than a year and a half, asGamal Abdel Nasser, aPan-Arabist and the principal architect of the 1952 movement, gradually consolidated power. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 and placed underhouse arrest. The presidency remained vacant until Nasser was formally elected in 1956.[70]
In October 1954, Egypt and the United Kingdom agreed to end theAnglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, granting Sudan full independence, which came into effect on 1 January 1956. In June 1956, Nasser assumed the presidency and immediately became the central figure in Egypt’s domestic and foreign policy. British forces completed their withdrawal from the Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. Later that year, on 26 July, Nassernationalised the Suez Canal, provoking theSuez Crisis when Israel, with support from France and the United Kingdom, invaded the Sinai Peninsula and targeted the Canal. The conflict ended following diplomatic pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union, restoring the pre-war status quo.[71]
In 1958, Egypt formed a political union with Syria, creating theUnited Arab Republic. The union, also loosely connected withNorth Yemen in theUnited Arab States, was short-lived; Syria seceded in 1961. During this period, Egypt became heavily involved in theNorth Yemen Civil War, with military interventions and peace conferences ultimately leading to a prolonged stalemate.[72]In May 1967, tensions with Israel escalated after warnings from the Soviet Union, deployment of Egyptian forces to Sinai, expulsion of UN peacekeepers, and closure of theStraits of Tiran. These measures precipitated theSix-Day War, during which Israel captured theSinai Peninsula and theGaza Strip. In response to the conflict, anEmergency Law was enacted, greatly expanding police powers, restricting constitutional rights, and legalising censorship; it remained in force until 2012, except for a brief break in 1980–81.[73]
Socially and economically, Nasser’s policies transformed Egypt. At the time of the monarchy’s fall, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class, four million were middle class, and seventeen million were lower class or poor.[74] Education was expanded, with school enrolment more than doubling from 1953 to 1966. Land reforms, industrial support, and growth in public-sector employment created a larger middle class, including doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, and journalists. However, by the late 1960s, the Egyptian economy faced stagnation, political freedoms had declined, and Nasser’s personal popularity began to wane.[74][75]
Egyptian tanks advancing in the Sinai desert during theYom Kippur War, 1973
After the death ofGamal Abdel Nasser in 1970,Anwar Sadat assumed the presidency of Egypt. Sadat consolidated his power by marginalising Nasserist and leftist factions, while controlling opposition both secular and religious. He shifted Egypt's Cold War alignment from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and renamed the country the Arab Republic of Egypt in 1971. Sadat launched theInfitah ("open door") economic reforms.[76] Some measures of this economic liberalization caused social tensions, most notably the removal of food subsidies in 1977 which sparked widespreadbread riots.
In 1973, Sadat coordinated with Syria in theFourth Arab-Israeli War to reclaim theSinai Peninsula from Israeli occupation. Though militarily mixed, the war restored Arab morale and strengthened Sadat's domestic legitimacy. His historic 1977 visit to Jerusalem led to the 1979Egypt-Israel peace treaty, with Israel withdrawing from Sinai and Egypt recognizing Israel as a sovereign state. This initiative provoked widespread controversy across the Arab world, resulting in Egypt's temporary expulsion from theArab League, but remained popular domestically.[77] Sadat was assassinated in 1981 by an Islamic extremist opposed to his domestic policies and peace initiative.
Hosni Mubarak succeeded Sadat in a 1981 referendum in which he was the sole candidate.[78] He maintained Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel and improved relations with Arab neighbors. Domestically, he faced widespread poverty, high unemployment, and urban overcrowding. The 1986 Security Police riots, sparked by reports of extended military service, led to violent protests, destruction of businesses, and 107 deaths.[79]
Terrorist attacks, particularly by Islamist groups likeAl-Gama'a al-Islamiyya, targeted government officials, foreigners, and ChristianCopts, devastating tourism, Egypt's primary source of hard currency.[80][81] The political scene was dominated by theNDP, which curtailed freedoms of association, expression, and political participation through laws such as the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 NGOs Law.[82]
In 1997, theLuxor massacre left 62 dead, mostly tourists, highlighting the continuing threat to security and the economy. In 2005, limited reforms allowed multi-candidate presidential elections, but restrictions on candidates and alleged government interference ensured Mubarak’s easy reelection. Voter turnout was less than 25%, and opposition leaderAyman Nour was subsequently imprisoned.[84]
Human Rights Watch andAmnesty International reported widespread human rights abuses, including torture, arbitrary detention, and the use of Egypt as an international “torture hub” in the context of theWar on Terror.[85][86] Constitutional changes in 2007 further expanded presidential powers, restricted religious parties, and broadened police authority. Egypt remained under strong military influence, described by officials as a "pharaonic" system, with democracy as a distant aspiration.[87]
Top: Celebrations inTahrir Square after the announcement ofHosni Mubarak's resignation, 2011. Bottom: Protests in Tahrir Square againstMorsi, 2012.
On 25 January 2011,widespread protests erupted against President Hosni Mubarak’s government, triggered by demands for political freedom, social justice, and the end of long-standing corruption. Demonstrations rapidly spread across major cities, particularly inCairo’sTahrir Square, capturing global attention.[88] After 18 days of escalating unrest, Mubarak resigned on 11 February 2011 and fled Cairo. TheEgyptian military assumed control, withMohamed Hussein Tantawi, chairman of theSupreme Council of the Armed Forces, acting as interim head of state.[89][90] On 13 February, the military dissolved parliament and suspended the constitution.[91] A constitutional referendum followed on 19 March 2011.[92] Later that year, Egypt held its first parliamentary elections since the previous regime, with high voter turnout and no major reported irregularities.[93]
Mohamed Morsi, affiliated with theMuslim Brotherhood, won thepresidency on 24 June 2012 and was sworn in on 30 June.[94][95] His cabinet, announced in August 2012, included significant representation from the Muslim Brotherhood, prompting liberal and secular groups to withdraw from theConstituent Assembly of Egypt over concerns of imposing strict Islamic law.[96] In November 2012, Morsi issued a decree granting immunity to his decisions and protecting the constituent assembly’s work, sparkingmass protests and violent clashes across the country.[97] Tensions escalated, with the largest confrontations between Islamist supporters and opponents since the 2011 revolution occurring on 5 December 2012.[98] Morsi refused to cancel the December 2012constitutional referendum.[99]
Abdel Fattah el-Sisi won thepresidential elections in June 2014 with 96.1% of the vote and was sworn in on 8 June. Under his rule, Egypt intensified security on the Gaza border, dismantled tunnels between Sinai and Gaza, and consolidated political power. Presidential terms were extended to six years in 2019, allowing El-Sisi to run for a third term in 2024. Parliamentary elections in 2020 confirmed a pro-El-Sisi majority for theMostaqbal Watan Party. The constitutional reforms and strengthened military authority under El-Sisi have been described as a return to authoritarianism.[105][106]
Egypt lies primarily between latitudes22° and32°N, and longitudes25° and35°E. At 1,001,450 square kilometres (386,660 sq mi), it is the world's 30th-largest country.[107] Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total land area.[108] 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.[109]
Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is desert, with a fewoases scattered about. Winds create prolificsand dunes that peak at more than 30 metres (100 ft) high. Egypt includes parts of theSahara desert and of theLibyan Desert.
Sinai peninsula hosts the highest mountain in Egypt,Mount Catherine at 2,642 metres. TheRed Sea Riviera, on the east of the peninsula, is renowned for its wealth of coral reefs and marine life.
Graphic of the increase in temperature in Egypt overtime
Most of Egypt's rain falls in the winter months.[111] South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16.1 in),[112] mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such asDamietta,Baltim andSidi Barrani, and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many decades.[113]Frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.
Egypt has an unusually hot, sunny and dry climate. Average high temperatures are high in the north but very to extremely high in the rest of the country during summer. The cooler Mediterranean winds consistently blow over the northern sea coast, which helps to get more moderated temperatures, especially at the height of the summertime. TheKhamaseen is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer. It brings scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F) and sometimes over 50 °C (122 °F) in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less.
Prior to the construction of theAswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually, replenishing Egypt's soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years.
Egypt's hot and arid climate is increasingly strained by climate change, leading to extreme temperatures, droughts, floods, and rising sea levels.[114] As a highly vulnerable nation, these environmental shifts threaten food security, water availability, public health, and economic stability.[115][116]
The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.[120] For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.[121]
The next parliamentary election was announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution's ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015.[124] Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim presidentAdly Mansour pushed the date.[125] The2014 Egyptian presidential election took place on 26–28 May. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, withAbdel Fattah el-Sisi winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.9% compared to 757,511 (3.1%) forHamdeen Sabahi.[126]
Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.[130] The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country's independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.[130]
Egypt's foreign policy is shaped by its strategic geographical position, historical legacy, and diplomatic influence in Africa, the Mediterranean, and Southwest Asia. As a founding member of theNon-Aligned Movement and the United Nations, Egypt has maintained a non-aligned stance while playing a pivotal role in regional diplomacy. Cairo, historically a crossroads of commerce and culture, remains a center of intellectual and political influence in the region.
Relations withRussia strengthened after Morsi's removal, with both nations expanding military cooperation[134] and trade relations.[135] Similarly,relations with China have deepened, culminating in the establishment of a "comprehensive strategic partnership" in 2014.[136]
In 2024, Egypt and theEuropean Union elevated their relationship to a "strategic and comprehensive partnership", emphasising political cooperation, and economic collaboration. Additionally, both sides are working on deepening trade relations under the Association Agreement, supporting Egypt's economic stability, and strengthening counterterrorism efforts.[137]
Egypt remains an influential mediator in Middle Eastern conflicts, particularly in brokering ceasefires in Gaza and facilitating theIsraeli–Palestinian peace process.[138] It is also a Member State of theAfrican Union and theArab League, hosting the Arab League headquarters in Cairo. The Arab League temporarily moved to Tunis in 1978 in protest of theEgypt–Israel peace treaty, but returned to Cairo in 1989. Egypt has also cultivated strong economic ties with Gulf nations such asSaudi Arabia and theUnited Arab Emirates, both of which have provided billions of dollars in financial assistance.[139]
TheEgyptian Armed Forces constitute Egypt's military establishment, comprising theEgyptian Army,Navy,Air Force, andAir Defense Forces under the direct supervision of the Chief of Staff,[140] with their headquarters at theState Strategic Command Center, commonly known as the Octagon, in theNew Administrative Capital. The military primarily oversees external defence but also plays a domestic role, assisting police in protecting vital infrastructure during emergencies and counterterrorism operations.[141] They also participate in foreign peacekeeping missions and engage in bilateral and multinational military exercises.[142]
The military wields significant political influence, operating autonomously and remaining exempt from many civilian laws.[141] A significant amount of military information is not made publicly available, including budget information, the names of the general officers and the military's size (which is considered a state secret).[141] In addition, the military is a major driver of Egypt's economic landscape, engaging in infrastructure development, consumer goods production, and real estate holdings through theNational Service Projects Organization.
With an active personnel strength of 438,500 and 479,000 reservists,[143] it is one of the largest and best-equipped militaries in the region.[142] Conscription is mandatory for men aged 18–30, with service obligations ranging from 14 to 36 months, depending on educational level, followed by a nine-year reserve duty. Voluntary enlistment is possible from age 16 for men and 17 for women.[142]
The military operates a diverse arsenal sourced primarily from China, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and the United States. Recent efforts have focused on modernisation and procurement of advanced weaponry.[142] The domestic defence industry is also well-established, manufacturing small arms, armored vehicles, and naval vessels, while maintaining licensed production agreements with countries such asGermany and theUnited States.[142]
Egypt is one of few countries in the region to possess spy satellites, launchingEgyptSat 1 in 2007,[144] followed byEgyptSat 2 in 2014.[145] In 2019, Egypt launched MisrSat-A, an observation satellite,[146] followed later that year by Tiba-1, a civilian and military communications satellite.[147][148] In 2023, Egypt launched Horus-1 and Horus-2, about a month apart. The country also placed MisrSat-2 into orbit later that year. All three of them are high-resolution observation satellites.[149][150][151] In 2024, two months after MisrSat-2's launch, the country successfully completed the initial operational phase of NEXSAT-1, its first experimental Earth observation satellite, achieving milestones such as developing indigenous onboard software, advanced attitude-control systems, and independently capturing and processing satellite imagery, all of which marked a major step forward in Egypt's national space capabilities.[152]
Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by theMinistry of Justice.[153] The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman's testimony is worth half of a man's testimony.[154]
On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in areferendum held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.[155] It replaced the2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution.
The Penal code was unique as it contains a "Blasphemy Law".[156] The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individualtriedin absentia. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.[157]
On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a moresecular constitution.[158] The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms.[158] The parliament may impeach the president.[158] Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolutefreedom of thought.[158] The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect.[158] Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on "religion, race, gender or geography".[158]
Protesters from the Third Square movement, which supported neither the former Morsi government nor the Armed Forces, 31 July 2013
TheNational Council for Human Rights was established in 2003, but it has faced criticism from activists who argue it serves as a government propaganda tool to justify human rights violations and repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.[159][160][161]
Egypt has also drawn international condemnation for mass death sentences, including a 2014 ruling sentencing 529 people to death in a single hearing.[168] TheUnited Nations and human rights groups have condemned these trials as gross violations ofinternational law.[169]
Homosexuality remainsde facto criminalized, with 95% of Egyptians opposing its acceptance, according to a 2013Pew survey.[170] A poll by theThomson Reuters Foundation, based on assessments from specialists in women's rights, ranked Cairo as the worst megacity for women, evaluating cities on sexual harassment, healthcare access, harmful cultural practices, and economic opportunities.[171]
Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.[173]
Change in per capita GDP of Egypt, 1820–2018. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.
The economy of Egypt is the second-largest inAfrica and ranks42nd worldwide as of 2025.[17] It is a majoremerging market economy, marked by its membership in organisations like theAfrican Union,Arab League,BRICS, and its participation in theAfrican Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).[174] The Egyptian economy has evolved significantly since the early 2000s, transitioning toward a market-oriented system through fiscal and monetary reforms, privatization efforts, and foreign investment incentives. These measures have contributed to macroeconomic stability and improved unemployment and poverty rates.[175][176]
Despite waves of privatization and fiscal reforms, the government remains one of the country’s largest employers, and state contracts continue to stimulate activity in other sectors of the still partlysocialised economy.[177] Construction, particularly large-scalepublic works, has remained a major source of employment and public expenditure.[177] However, as part of an $8 billionInternational Monetary Fund program launched in 2024, Egypt has committed to rationalizing such spending.[178] As a result private investments rose to 47.5% of total executed investments in FY 2024/25, up from 39.6%, while public investment fell to 43.3%. This marks the highest private share in five years and represents a clear shift in Egypt's investment landscape.[179]
The central business district in Egypt'snew capital
Egypt is among the world's top five recipients ofremittances,[180] which have more than doubled over the past decade, rising from $17.1 billion in FY 2015/2016 to a record $36.5 billion in FY 2024/2025, according to data from theCentral Bank of Egypt.[181] These inflows are crucial for Egypt's foreign reserves and household incomes.[182]
International trade is a key component of Egypt’s economy, accounting for 40% of GDP according to theWorld Bank. The country has pursued broader economic integration through free trade agreements, including the EU-Egypt Association Agreement andAfCFTA.[183] Egypt's exports have seen significant growth in the past years,[184] and the government aims to raise them to $145 billion by 2030.[185]
Since 1979, Egypt has received substantialUnited States foreign aid, averaging $1.5 billion annually, with approximately $200 million allocated to economic assistance and the remainder directed toward military aid for procuring weapon systems from American suppliers.
The fully electricMCV C127 EV, made in Egypt for the German market
Egypt has the largest manufacturing sector in Africa, accounting for approximately 22% of the continent's total manufacturing value.[186] UnderEgypt Vision 2030 and its related development plans, the country has relied onindustrial parks,free zones andspecial economic zones to boost industrialisation and manufacturing.[187]
Light manufacturing is a pillar of Egypt’s industrial base, with several government-led programs aiming to accelerate its growth.[190] TheEgypt Makes Electronics initiative has attracted factories from international firms, includingVivo,Infinix,Oppo,Xiaomi,Nokia,Electrolux,Samsung,Hisense,Beko, andHaier, contributing to Egypt’s emergence as a regional hub for electronics and home appliance production.[191][192][193] Thetextile industry is also a cornerstone of Egypt’s economy, contributing around 12% of export earnings and employing 2.5 million people. It spans the entire production chain from cotton cultivation to finished garments and is globally recognized for its premiumGiza cotton.[194][195]
Heavy industry also plays a major role. Egypt is Africa’s leadingsteel producer and ranks 20th globally, with 9.8 million tons in 2022.[196] Egyptian steel companyEZDK is the largest in the region, ranked 77th globally in 2020.[197] The country'sautomotive industry, led byNasr,Ghabbour, andMCV, is expanding through partnerships with global manufacturers under the government’s 2024–2030 strategy, which targets 500,000 vehicles annually and promotes localelectric vehicle production.[198]
Egypt’s retail and services sector has expanded steadily in recent years, driven by population growth, rising incomes, and urbanisation.[199] As of 2020 the country’s retail market, encompassing shopping malls, supermarkets, convenience stores, and e-commerce platforms, was worth around $200 billion.[199]
The retail food and grocery sector is still largely dominated by traditional, family-run stores andwet markets, although supermarket and convenience store chains expanded in both size and popularity between 2015 and 2020.[199]Hypermarkets andwholesale discounters recorded the highest growth rates over this period, at 153% and 162% respectively, accounting for 26% of the sector’s sales.[199]
The country has also seen significant growth inshopping malls. With over 20 operating malls,Cairo has the highest number in the country, while smaller cities such asMansoura andTanta have seen the opening of their first commercial malls in recent years.[199]
The Egyptian government plays a major role in the telecommunications sector through its majority ownership ofTelecom Egypt.[200] Between 2019 and 2022, mobile internet subscriptions in Egypt grew 77.9%, from 39 million to 69.4 million, with total mobile subscriptions reaching 106.2 million by December 2023.[201] Internet penetration reached 72.2% in early 2024, with 82 million users.[202] Since 2022 Egypt has the fastest internet speeds in Africa.[203]
Egyptian banks are among the largest and most dynamic in the region. Most Egyptian lenders are adopting new technologies to expand into nonbanking financial services.[204] Thefintech sector has grown 5.5-fold since 2020, with 177 startups, ranking Egypt 10th among emerging markets.[205] The banking sector is dominated by four state-owned commercial banks, theNational Bank of Egypt,Banque Misr,Banque du Caire, andBank of Alexandria, which together account for about 55% of total banking assets.[206]CIB is the country’s largest private bank and the third-largest overall.[207]
Egypt's oil production is concentrated in the Western Desert, theGulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta, with peak crude oil output reaching approximately 941,000 bbl/d (149,600 m3/d) in 1993 before declining to 630,000 bbl/d (100,000 m3/d) by 2008.[208] This decline transformed Egypt into a net oil importer by 2008–2009, prompting a strategic shift toward natural gas.
Natural gas has since become central to Egypt's economy, drawing major foreign investment.[208] TheZohr gas field, discovered byEni in 2015, is the Mediterranean’s largest reserve, containing about 30 trillion cubic feet of gas. Production began in 2017 and reached 2.7 billion cubic feet per day (bcf/d) by 2019,[209] greatly enhancing Egypt’s energy outlook, though recent technical issues have reduced output; new drilling is planned to restore capacity.[210]BP has made major investments, including a $12 billion commitment in 2015 to the West Nile Delta project, along with other developments such as Atoll, North Damietta, and Qattameya, which began production in 2020.[211][212]
Egypt's agricultural sector remains essential to its economy, though its share of GDP and employment has declined over time. Egypt produces substantial quantities ofwheat,maize,sugarcane,fruits,vegetables,fodder, andrice, yet remains reliant on wheat and maize imports, primarily from Ukraine and Russia, despite yield improvements since 1970.[217][218] This dependency stems from high domestic demand, driven by subsidies and aculinary preference for bread, as well as Egypt's limited arable land and its emphasis on high-value export crops.[217] In 2024, Egypt exported $4.1 billion in agricultural goods[219] and roughly $6.1 billion in food industry products.[220]
The country has achieved self-sufficiency in several key agricultural products, includingvegetables,fruits,poultry,dairy,eggs, andrice, while nearing full self-sufficiency insugar andfish, with production reaching approximately 90% of demand.[221] Self-sufficiency ratios are lower forred meat (60%),[222]cereals (58%),vegetable oils (26%), andoil crops (35%). Consequently, Egypt relies on imports for roughly 45% of its domestic food demand.[223]
TheAswan High Dam, completed in 1971, significantly improved irrigation stability.[224] In 2010, 3.6 million hectares were cultivated, with the government targeting 4.8 million hectares by 2030.[225] Major initiatives include the New Delta andToshka Project, designed to convert desert areas into farmland using advanced irrigation techniques,wastewater treatment,groundwater and waterdesalination.[226] Efforts to deregulate agriculture have improved price alignment with global markets, but climate change and water scarcity continue to pose long-term challenges.
Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt's economy. 2024 saw a record 15.7 million tourists, surpassing 14.9 million in 2023. This growth, driven by government efforts to enhance security and tourism support, reflects a strong recovery from the pandemic-induced decline of 2020. Tourism revenues have also surged, reaching $14.1 billion, reflecting steady improvement over previous years.[227]
Egypt's tourism strategy aims to attract 30 million tourists by 2028, with a focus on infrastructure improvements, high-profile projects like theGrand Egyptian Museum, and enhancing visitor experiences. In 2024, the country's top tourism markets included Germany, Russia, and Saudi Arabia.[227]TheGiza Necropolis is one of Egypt's best-known tourist attractions; it is the only one of theSeven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.
Power plant of theAswan High Dam, with the dam itself in the background
Egypt’s electricity sector has shifted from full state control to a more diversified energy mix that includesnatural gas,renewables, andnuclear power, with growing private sector participation and regional interconnections.Fossil fuels still dominate, generating 88% of electricity in 2023, while hydropower provides 7% and wind and solar together 5%, up from 1% in 2015 but still below the global average of 13% and Africa’s 6%.[228] Egypt remains Africa’s largest producer of gas-fired electricity, accounting for 45% of the continent’s total in 2022, yet its per capita carbon emissions remain below the global average.[229]
The government undertook a series of rapid reforms in response toblackouts during the summer of 2014 that lasted for up to six hours per day, cutting energy subsidies, and quickly developing theZohr gas field in the Mediterranean, which was discovered in 2015. The country now has an oversupply of electricity and aims to source 20% of its electricity fromrenewables by 2022 and 55% by 2050.[230] As part of its renewable energy strategy, Egypt has undertaken large-scale projects like theBenban Solar Park and the Gabal El Zeit wind farm. Benban, located near Aswan, has a total capacity of 1650 MW and generates about 3.8 TWh annually, making it the fourth-largest solar power plant globally.[231] Additionally, the Gabal El Zeit wind farm, costing €340 million, spans 100 square kilometers with 300 turbines, generating 580 MW of electricity.[232][233] Egypt is currently constructing its first nuclear power facility, theEl Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant, in the northern coastal region.[234]
Egypt andCyprus are considering implementing the proposedEuroAfrica Interconnector project.[235] This consists of laying a 2 GWHVDCundersea power cable between them and between Cyprus and Greece, thus connecting Egypt to the greater European power grid.[236] The interconnector will make Egypt an electricity hub between Europe and Africa.[237] The president of Egypt and the prime minister of Cyprus met inNicosia on 21 November 2017 and showed their full support for the EuroAfrica Interconnector pointing out its importance for their energy security.[238][239]
TheCairo Metro operates three lines, with a fourth line under construction and plans for additional expansions in the future. Meanwhile, twomonorail lines are also being built in the city, along with ametro system inAlexandria.[242]
Egypt has undertaken major road infrastructure expansion through theNational Roads Project, increasing the total length of main roads by nearly 30% from 23,500 km in 2014 to 30,500 km in 2024. Alongside constructing new highways, thousands of kilometers of roads have been upgraded, leading to improvements in Egypt's Road Quality Index, which rose from 118th place in 2015 to 18th place in 2024.[243]
Egypt's aviation sector is led byEgyptAir, the country'sflag carrier and largest airline, founded in 1932 byTalaat Harb. Now state-owned, EgyptAir operates from itsCairo International Airport hub, with scheduled passenger and cargo services to over 75 destinations across the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The airline's current fleet consists of 80 aircraft.
TheSuez Canal, an artificial sea-level waterway, connects the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, enabling direct shipping between Europe and Asia without navigating around Africa. In 2023 it generated a record $9.4 billion in revenue for Egypt.[244] Opened in November 1869, the 193.30 km (120+1⁄8 mi) canal runs fromPort Said in the north toPort Tawfiq in the south, withIsmailia situated3 kilometres (1+7⁄8 miles) west of its midpoint.[245]
The canal is 24 metres (79 feet) deep and 205 m (673 ft) wide as of 2010[update], consisting of a 22 km (14 mi) northern access channel, a162.25 km (100+7⁄8 mi) main section, and a9 km (5+1⁄2 mi) southern access channel. The Ballah By-Pass and the Great Bitter Lake provide passing points along the canal, which operates without locks, allowing seawater to flow freely.Expansions completed in 2015 increased its daily capacity from 49 to 97 ships, reducing transit times and boosting global maritime trade.[245][246][247]
Green irrigated land along the Nile amidst the desert and in theNile Delta
Egypt'swater supply is heavily dependent on theNile River, which provides approximately 90% of the country's total water resources, with an annual share of 55 billion cubic meters, unchanged since 1954. An additional 0.5 billion cubic meters comes from non-renewable groundwater sources. However, national demand exceeds 90 billion cubic meters annually, creating a persistent water deficit. As a result, Egypt's per capita water share fell to 570 cubic meters in 2018, well below the 1,000 cubic meter international water scarcity threshold. To address this, the government has prioritised efficient water management, particularly in response to population growth and agricultural expansion.[248]
Despite these challenges, water access has significantly improved. Between 1990 and 2010, piped water coverage rose from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas, eliminatingopen defecation in rural regions and achieving near-universal access to animproved water source. By 2015, 90% of the population had access to safely managed drinking water, increasing to 96.9% by 2019. Similarly, proper sanitation coverage expanded from 50% in 2015 to 66.2% in 2019, while the percentage of treated wastewater relative to total wastewater rose from 50% to 68.7% in the same period, reaching 74% in 2022.[249] However, gaps in sanitation infrastructure have historically led to health concerns, with a 2007 report estimating 17,000 child deaths annually from diarrheal diseases linked to poor sanitation.[250]
Egypt has made significant investments in wastewater treatment infrastructure as part of its broader water management strategy. In 2021, the Bahr El Baqar Wastewater Treatment Plant was completed, becoming the largest in the world at the time, with a capacity of 5 million cubic meters per day. The treated water from this facility is allocated to irrigating 342,000 acres under the Sinai Peninsula Development Plan.[248] In 2023, Egypt inaugurated theNew Delta Wastewater Treatment Plant, surpassing Bahr El Baqar as the largest wastewater facility globally, with a capacity of 7.5 million cubic meters per day.[251] A key component of Egypt's agricultural expansion strategy, the plant supports the New Delta reclamation project while also reducing pollution inLake Mariout and theMediterranean Sea.[251]
Given Egypt's arid climate and lack of appreciable rainfall, agriculture is entirely dependent on irrigation. The Nile River, regulated by theAswan High Dam, releases an annual average of 55 billion cubic meters, of which 46 billion cubic meters are diverted into irrigation canals.[252] This irrigation sustains 33,600 square kilometers (13,000 square miles) of agricultural land in the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, producing an average of 1.8 crops per year.[252]
Egypt is the most populated country in the Arab world and the third most populous on theAfrican continent, with about 95 million inhabitants as of 2017[update].[253] Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due tomedical advances and increases in agricultural productivity[254] enabled by theGreen Revolution.[255] Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million whenNapoleon invaded the country in 1798.[256] The great majority of its people live near the banks of theNile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), where the onlyarable land is found. The large regions of theSahara desert, which constitute most of Egypt's territory, are sparsely inhabited. About 43% of Egypt's residents live across the country's urban areas,[257] with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
Egypt's people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and thefellahin, or farmers, that reside in rural villages. The total inhabited area constitutesonly 77,041 km², putting thephysiological density at over 1,200 people per km2, similar to Bangladesh.
While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of theArab Cold War.[258] Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis.[259] An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).[260] The process of emigrating to non-Arab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.[261]
Ethnic groups
EthnicEgyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 99.7% of the total population.[69] Ethnic minorities include theAbazas,Turks,Greeks,Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and theSinai Peninsula, theBerber-speakingSiwis (Amazigh) of theSiwa Oasis, and theNubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribalBeja communities concentrated in the southeasternmost corner of the country, and a number ofDom clans mostly in the Nile Delta andFaiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases.
Egypt hosts a migrant population of over 9 million, constituting 8.7% of the country's total population, according to the International Organization for Migration. These migrants originate from 133 countries, with the largest groups beingSudanese (4 million),Syrians (1.5 million),Yemenis (1 million), andLibyans (1 million), collectively making up 80% of all international migrants in Egypt.[262]
Cairo is famous for its numerous mosqueminarets and has been dubbed "The City of 1,000 Minarets".[281] The city also hostsAl-Azhar University, which is considered the preeminent institution of Islamic higher learning and jurisprudence.[282] Founded in the late tenth century, it is by some measures the second oldest continuously operating university in the world.[283]
It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow native Sufiorders,[284][285][286] withSufi leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater, as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order.[285] At least 305 people were killed during aNovember 2017 attack on a Sufi mosque in Sinai.[287]
The Egyptian government recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects, such as the smallBaháʼí Faith andAhmadiyya communities, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt's national security.[290][291] Individuals, particularly Baháʼís and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cardsare denied this ability, and were put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.[292][293]
Egyptian literacy rate among the population aged 15 years and older by UNESCO Institute of Statistics
In 2022, Egypt's adult literacy rate was 74.5%, compared to 71.1% in 2017.[294] Literacy is lowest among those over 65 years of age, at 32.9% in 2021,[295] and highest among youth between 15 and 24 years of age, at 92.2% in 2022.[296]
A European-style education system was first introduced in Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century to nurture a class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers.[297] Under British occupation, investment in education was curbed drastically, and secular public schools, which had previously been free, began to charge fees.[297]
In the 1950s, President Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians.[297] The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers.[297] Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate.[297] Today this trend has culminated in poor teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.[297]
Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.[298] After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of theThanaweya Amma, the leaving exam.[298] In 2025 Egypt introduced a new Baccalaureate Certificate System which will replace theThanaweya Amma starting 2026.[299]
Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.[298]
TheQS World University Rankings 2025 includes 15 Egyptian universities, withCairo University ranked highest among them. TheAmerican University in Cairo follows, improving its position to 410th place. Several Egyptian universities have advanced in rankings compared to the previous year, reflecting ongoing improvements in higher education.[300]
As of 2024, Egypt's average life expectancy stands at 75 years, with 73.8 years for males and 76.2 years for females.[302] Healthcare access has significantly improved in both urban and rural areas, with immunisation programs now covering 98% of the population. Life expectancy has risen from 45 years in the 1960s to its current level, reflecting advancements in medical services and disease prevention. The infant mortality rate has also declined sharply, dropping from 101–132 deaths per 1,000 live births in the 1970s and 1980s to 50–60 per 1,000 in 2000, and further to 16–18 per 1,000 in 2024.[303][302]
The private sector provides about 60% of healthcare services, including for-profit and nonprofit organisations, private hospitals, pharmacies, and independent practitioners. Numerousnongovernmental organisations also offer healthcare, including religious and charitable institutions. As of 2021, Egypt had 1,145 private hospitals, a 23.69% increase since 2011.[305] Private healthcare facilities in Egypt are generally of high quality.[306]
Egypt grants refugees and asylum-seekers access to public healthcare on equal terms with citizens, allowing them to receive care at primary health facilities either free or at low cost.[307]
A 2008 report by theWorld Health Organisation estimated that 91.1% of Egypt's girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected togenital mutilation. Government measures have reduced the practice among younger generations. By 2014, rates had dropped to 10.4% in urban areas and 15.9% in rural areas among girls aged 1–14. In June 2025 theMinister of Social Solidarity announced that the percentage of girls aged 15 to 17 who had undergone the practice dropped to 37 percent in 2021, compared to 61 percent in 2014. Public support for FGM has also fallen, with the proportion of women endorsing the practice decreasing from 75 percent in 2000 to 30 percent in 2021.Legislative reforms, awareness campaigns, and stricter law enforcement contributed to this decline. In 2016, penalties for performing the practice were increased, with prison sentences of up to 15 years for practitioners and up to 3 years forguardians who facilitate the procedure.[308][309][310]
Egypt is a recognised cultural trendsetter of the Arabic-speaking world. Contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arabic-speaking world.[311]
Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodateIslam, Christianity and Judaism; and a new language,Arabic, and its spoken descendant,Egyptian Arabic, which has a significantCoptic-Egyptiansubstrate.[312]
The Egyptians were one of the first major civilisations to codify design elements in art andarchitecture.Egyptian blue, also known as calcium copper silicate, is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of thePharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is renowned for its colossalpyramids,temples and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are thePyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineerImhotep, theSphinx, and the temple ofAbu Simbel.
Modern and contemporary Egyptian art spans a wide range of disciplines, ranging from the vernacular architecture ofHassan Fathy andRamses Wissa Wassef to the iconic sculptures ofMahmoud Mokhtar and the distinctiveCoptic iconography ofIsaac Fanous. Its development in the twentieth century reflected a complex dialogue between national identity, global artistic trends, and social change. Early modern Egyptian artists sought to reconnect with their national heritage through Neo-Pharaonic styles in architecture, sculpture, and painting, with artists such asMahmoud Mokhtar andMahmoud Sa'id incorporating symbolic references to ancient Egypt and rural life.[315][316]
Later generations embraced international movements likeSurrealism,Cubism,Dadaism, andabstraction, while theArt et Liberté group, includingRamses Younan, promoted individual expression and antifascist ideals.[315] The Contemporary Art Group, with artists such asGazbia Sirry andAbdel Hadi Al Gazzar, explored social realism and the quest for the Egyptian soul, while experimental painters and sculptors like Munir Canaan and Salah Abdel Kerim exploredAbstract Expressionism andassemblage.[315] In the latter half of the century, artists responded to political and cultural shifts with Islamic-inspired calligraphy and geometric abstraction, exemplified by the Calligraphic School of Art.[315] Other notable artists from this era includeInji Efflatoun andKamal Amin.
The launch of institutions such as theTownhouse Gallery in 1998 democratised art access and introduced new media forms like video and installation art,[317] providing a platform for younger artists such asFathi Hassan,Ghada Amer, Medhat Shafik,Moataz Nasr, and Mona Marzouk to experiment with installation, video, and photography.[315] The2011 Egyptian revolution ushered in a new era of politically and socially engaged art.Graffiti emerged as a prominent medium to document protests and communicate revolutionary messages,[318] with artists likeBahia Shehab,Alaa Awad,Aya Tarek, andGanzeer creating works that memorialised martyrs, critiqued political figures, and reclaimed public spaces.[319]
Khayamiya design motives.
Khayamiya is a traditional Egyptian appliqué textile art primarily made in Cairo’s historicShareʿEl Khayamiya (Arabic:شارع الخيامية,romanised: Shāriʿ al-Khayāmiyya,lit. 'Street of the Tentmakers'), also known as the Tentmakers Market. The craft, thought to date back toancient Egypt, involves a labor-intensive hand-stitching process that can take weeks to complete, with designs ranging from geometric motifs to scenes drawn from Egyptian history and folklore. It was originally associated with decorated tents, but today it is also used for quilts, cushion covers, and wall hangings.[320]
TheCairo Opera House is Egypt’s main performing arts venue, with theSayed Darwish Theatre inAlexandria and thePort Said Opera House inPort Said serving their respective cities. In 2012 theDowntown Contemporary Arts Festival (D-CAF) was launched to revitalize Cairo’s cultural scene and to provide an inclusive platform for contemporary arts. It is an annual arts festival held in Cairo, Egypt, presenting a range of performances, exhibitions, and workshops in theatre, dance, and visual arts.[321]
The literary tradition of Egypt began inancient Egypt, making it among the earliest in human history. Writing was first used by Egyptians to record texts on materials such as papyrus and carved inscriptions.[322] TheStory of Sinuhe is perhaps its best-known work;[323] and the autobiography has been called the earliest form of Egyptian literature.[324] By the eighth century Egypt became part of the Muslim Arab world. Literature and libraries thrived under the new order, papyrus was replaced by paper, and calligraphy became central.[325] In the 13th century,Ibn al-Nafis wroteTheologus Autodidactus, a theological novel with proto-science fiction elements.[326] Literary practices such as thetaqriz (commendatory blurbs) appeared in 14th-century Egypt,[327] and Egyptian folklore contributed toOne Thousand and One Nights.[328]
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Egypt was central to theNahda, the Arab cultural renaissance.[329]Muhammad Abduh, a leading figure of Islamic modernism,[330] co-founded the revolutionary journalAl-Urwah al-Wuthqa withJamal al-Din al-Afghani in 1884; though quickly banned by the British, it circulated widely across the Arab world.[331][332][333][334]Ahmad Shawqi pioneered the expansion of the classicalqasida form, though his work remained firmly rooted in neo-classical style. Following him, poets such asHafez Ibrahim began addressing themes ofanticolonialism alongside traditional poetic subjects.[335]Muhammad Husayn Haykal’sZaynab is considered the first modern Egyptian novel.[336] This novel started a movement of modernising Arabic fiction.[335] Poetry remained vibrant, with figures such asAziz Pasha Abaza contributing classical-style verse withPan-Arabism themes. The Abaza family produced several notable literary figures, includingFekry Pasha Abaza,Tharwat Abaza, and Desouky Pasha Abaza.[337][338]
Naguib Mahfouz, the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature
In the 20th century, modernist movements shaped Egyptian literature.Al-Madrasa al-Ḥadītha focused on the short story,[339] while two of the most prominent figures wereTaha Hussein andNaguib Mahfouz, the latter the first Egyptian and Arabic-language writer to receive theNobel Prize in Literature. Avant-garde literary activity emerged through magazines likeGalerie 68, founded byEdwar al-Kharrat, giving voice to Egypt's 1960s generation.[340]
In the 1990s, Egyptian literature responded to socio-economic changes such as urbanisation and rising living costs, focusing on isolated individuals in a changing society, exemplified by Mustafa Zikri,Nura Amin, andMay Telmissany.[341] This era also saw the rise of women writers, often calledkitabat al-banat ("girls' writing"), with shorter, first-person narratives.[342][343]
Egypt is a major regional media hub, with its press among the most influential in the Arab world. Theprinting press was first introduced to Egypt byNapoleon Bonaparte during hisFrench Campaign in Egypt and Syria.[347]Alexandria was the centre of Egyptian journalism for much of the 1800s,[348] with many literary journals starting there before moving toCairo.[349] By the 1890s, Cairo had become dominant, hosting 65% of publications, while Alexandria accounted for 28%.[348] The written press in Egypt today is highly diverse, with more than 600 newspapers, journals, and magazines.[350] The three leading state-owned press institutions areAl-Ahram,Al-Akhbar andDar Al-Tahrir,[351] the latter being a major publishing house that issues a wide range of newspapers and magazines in different languages, includingAl-Gomhuria,The Egyptian Gazette,Le Progrès Egyptien, among others.[352]
Egypt was the first country in the region to introduce radio broadcasts to a wide population in 1926, initially through private short-wave stations with limited range, primarily located betweenCairo andAlexandria.[353] The official Egyptian radio service launched on 31 May 1934, with the first broadcast featuringMuhammad Rifat, a Quran reciter.[353] Following the1952 Egyptian Revolution, radio became a central tool of state communication and regional influence. Under PresidentGamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt developed theVoice of the Arabs (Arabic:صوت العرب,romanised: Sawt El Arab) service, launched in the 1950s as one of the most prominent Arabic-language broadcasts of its time.[354] Initially modest in size, Egypt’s radio system was rapidly expanded by the revolutionary government. It was used to promote Arab unity, strengthen Egypt’s leadership role in the region, often calling for solidarity and revolutionary action, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s.[354] Contemporary radio in Egypt is largely operated by theEgyptian Radio and Television Union (ERTU), established in 1970, which manages multiple national and local stations. Private FM stations also exist, but state radio remains the most widespread. Programming includes news, cultural content, educational programs.[351]
Egyptian television began in 1960 when Channel 1 launched withQuran readings and a speech by PresidentNasser, followed by Channel 2 in 1961 offering cultural, informational, and instructional programs. Over the following decades, additional channels were launched regionally.[351] In the 21st century, Egypt's television and film industry continue to supply much of the region through Cairo’sMedia Production City. Television remains the most popular medium in the country, withERTU operating two national terrestrial channels, six local terrestrial channels covering all 27 governorates, three satellite channels, and over ten specialised channels, including news, sport, culture, education, and entertainment.[351] In addition, numerous private satellite television channels operate alongside the state networks.[351] Egypt is a major force in satellite broadcasting, being the first Arab country to launch its own satellite,Nilesat.
Egyptian cinema, the oldest in Africa and the Arab world, began in 1896 with film screenings inAlexandria,Cairo, andPort Said. Early production started in 1907 with short documentaries, and the first feature films appeared in 1917, directed byMohammed Karim. By the 1920s and 1930s, the country’s film scene expanded with productions such asLayla andSons of Aristocrats, the first Egyptian talkie.[355] In 1936,Studio Misr, financed by industrialistTalaat Harb, emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a role the company retained for three decades.[356] For over 100 years, more than 4,000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.[357][358]
The industry has been a dominant cultural force in the Arab world since its inception, earning the nickname "Arab Hollywood" and "Hollywood of the East".[359][360][355] Its golden age, spanning the 1940s to the 1960s, saw Egypt become the world’s third-largest film producer, with hundreds of films across genres achieving widespread regional popularity.[359] Iconic filmmakers such asYoussef Chahine andHenry Barakat, and celebrated actors includingFaten Hamama, helped establish Egyptian cinema as a major influence on Arab cultural identity. Today, Egyptian films continue to reach audiences across the Arab world and beyond, maintaining the country’s historic role as a central hub for Arabic-language cinema.[359]
Egypt hosts several film festivals, which have become important platforms for both local and international filmmakers. TheCairo International Film Festival, established in 1976, showcases a range of films from dramas to experimental works and attracts filmmakers and audiences from around the world.[361] It is listed by theInternational Federation of Film Producers' Associations as one of the 11 competitive film festivals in the world.[362] TheLuxor African Film Festival highlights African cinema, while theEl Gouna Film Festival presents Arabic and international films. Other notable events include the Ismailia International Film Festival, which focuses on social and environmental themes, and the Alexandria Short Film Festival, which features narrative, documentary, and animated short films.[361]
The number of cinemas increased with the emergence of talking films, and reached 395 in 1958. This number began to decline after the establishment of television in 1960 and the establishment of the public sector in cinemas in 1962. The cinema count fell to 297 in 1965, then to 141 in 1995, due to the circulation of films through video equipment though the boom of the film industry in this period. Due to laws and procedures that encouraged investment in the establishment of private cinemas, they increased again, especially in commercial centres. Their number reached 200 in 2001 and 400 in 2009.[363][364]
An ancient Egyptian mural of people playing music.
Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part ofEgyptian culture since antiquity. The ancientEgyptians credited one of their godsHathor with the invention of music, whichOsiris in turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.[365]
Contemporary Egyptian music has its roots in the work of early artists such asAbdu al-Hamuli, Almaz, and Mahmoud Osman, whose contributions shaped and inspired later generations. It was recorded as early as the 1910s, with a thriving classical tradition developing in Cairo by the 1930s, blending indigenous folk influences with Western elements and producing iconic 20th-century stars such asSayed Darwish,Umm Kulthum,Mohammed Abdel Wahab,Abdel Halim Hafez, andBaligh Hamdi, many of whom became central to both popular culture and national identity.
The music scene evolved from the golden age of mid-20th centurymodern Egyptian classical heavyweights, to the rise ofEgyptian pop in the 1980s–90s with artists such asAmr Diab,Hisham Abbas, andMostafa Amar.[369] At the same time,Omar Khairat emerged as a leading composer and pianist, blendingWestern classical music with distinctive Egyptian influences. He has written numerous acclaimed film scores and symphonic works which has made him one of Egypt’s most internationally respected contemporary musicians.[370]
In the 21st century, globalisation and the2011 revolution spurred diverse underground movements, with musicians and bands likeRamy Essam andCairokee addressing identity and political themes.[369]Mahraganat emerged from working-class communities to become mainstream, developing out ofshaabi music, which has been part of Egyptian culture since the 1970s with pioneers such asAhmed Adaweya. Meanwhile, Egyptianrap,trap, andtechno gained prominence through artists like Abyusif,Marwan Pablo, andWegz.[369]
In recent years, Egypt’s music scene has seen a generational shift, with new artists emerging as leading figures alongside established icons. According toSpotify Wrapped 2024, seven of the ten most-streamed songs in Egypt came from newer performers experimenting withrap,R&B,electronic fusions, andstreet music alongside traditional influences. Rising artists such as Eslam Kabonga, Shehab, TUL8TE, Mahmoud El Leithy, and Essam Sasa gained significant popularity, while established acts likeMarwan Pablo,Sherine,Cairokee, andTamer Ashour also remained highly streamed. The trend coincided with an 85 percent rise in local music consumption, underscoring the growing dominance of homegrown talent.[371] Egypt’s music industry has seen rapid international growth through streaming platforms, withSpotify reporting a fivefold rise in royalties since 2022, over 90 percent of earnings going to independent artists, and more than 80 percent of revenue coming from listeners outside Egypt.[372]
Dances
Egypt has a rich tradition of folk dances that reflect the country’s regional and cultural diversity. InLower Egypt, dances such asghawazi el sonbat (غوازي سنباط),raqs el hagala (رقص الحجلة), andwelad el sayala (أولاد السيالة) incorporate colourful costumes and props to tell a story. For example,welad el sayala, performed inAlexandria, uses pocket knives and chairs to represent the lives and celebrations of fishermen and their communities.[373] InUpper Egypt, dances include stick dances such asraqs el assaya (رقص العصا) andtahtib (تحطيب), which are traditionally performed by men at weddings and festive occasions. These dances often symbolise strength and skill, with tahtib in particular originating from ancient martial arts traditions.[373] Nubian dance, originating inNubian communities in Egypt's south, are characterised by rhythmic arm movements and upbeat tempos, often accompanied by the tambourine duff.[373]
Egypt is often considered the home ofbelly dance. Egyptianbelly dance has two main styles:raqs baladi (رقص بلدي) andraqs sharqi (رقص شرقي). There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer's repertoire, as well as the modernshaabi dance (رقص شعبي), which shares some elements withraqs baladi. Belly dancing emphasises fluid movements of the hips, belly, and arms, often performed to the rhythm of the tabla drum, and is closely associated with femininity and performance in cinema and theater.[373]
Other prominent forms of Egyptian dance include Sufitanoura (رقص التنورة) dancing, which involves multilayered skirts and is performed both as a spiritual practice to achieve trance-like states and as a cultural performance at festivals and tourist sites.[373]
Egypt is home to one of the world's oldest civilisations. It has engaged with numerous cultures and nations throughout its history and has experienced a vast array of eras, from the prehistoric age to modern times, encompassing periods such asancient Egypt,Ptolemaic,Roman,Medieval,Ottoman, and theAlawiyya dynasty.
Tutankhamun's burial mask is one of the major attractions of theEgyptian Museum.
Notable museums in Egypt include theEgyptian Museum in Cairo, which houses over 120,000 items and is one of the world’s largest museums as well as the first national museum in the Middle East, opened in 1902;[374] theNational Museum of Egyptian Civilization, home to 50,000 artifacts from various eras and the resting place of 22 ancient Egyptian kings and queens relocated there in 2021 during thePharaohs' Golden Parade; and theAbdeen Palace Museum, one of Egypt’s most famous royal palaces, which contains five museums showcasing arms, royal belongings, silverware, historical documents, and presidential gifts.[375]
TheGrand Egyptian Museum is an under construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts in the world, it has been described as the world's largest archaeological museum.[376] The museum is sited on 50 hectares (120 acres) of land approximately two kilometres (1.2 miles) from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau.[377] It features a six-storey atrium with the 82-tonStatue of Ramesses II and a grand staircase, while its galleries display artifacts spanning ancient Egypt’s history. The Tutankhamun exhibition will showcase 5,600 objects from his tomb, including his gold mask and royal regalia. It is arranged around three central themes, life, death, and the afterlife, and features two opposing pathways: a chronological journey through his life and reign, and a forensic exploration of his tomb and excavation. The museum is set to open on 1 November 2025.[378]
Sham Ennessim (شم النسيم) is an annualfestival in Egypt marking the beginning of spring, celebrated by Egyptians of all religions and recognised as an officialpublic holiday.[380] It is observed onEaster Monday, the day afterEaster,[381] typically between theEgyptian months ofParemoude (April) andPashons (May). The festival is traditionally celebrated outdoors, with picnics in public gardens, along theNile, or at the zoo. Typical foods includefesikh, lettuce,green onions, andlupin beans. Boiled eggs are often coloured and eaten or exchanged as gifts.[380] it is generally held that Sham Ennessim is a continuation of early forms of springtime festivities dating back over 4,500 years.[380]
Moulids, or saint's festivals, are a long-standing tradition throughout Egypt, celebrating both Islamic and Christian saints. The majority are Islamic and typically featuredhikr, the ritual chanting and recitation of prayers, as well as performances by Sufi groups, including music and spiritual gatherings.[382] Christian moulids follow comparable festive patterns. These events blend religious devotion with communal celebration, often centering on a shrine or mosque where pilgrims seek blessings through prayer, recitation of religious texts, circumambulation, and other acts of veneration.[382] They are also social and cultural occasions, with food, games, rides, and temporary stalls set up in the surrounding streets.[382] Major festivals, such as theMoulid Abu El Haggag (مولد أبو الحجاج) inLuxor, attract thousands of participants. It features boats and shrines paraded through the city in his honour, a tradition with origins dating back toancient Egypt.[382] The procession closely resembles the rituals of theOpet Festival.[383]
Egyptian cuisine is deeply rooted in the agricultural traditions of theNile Valley andDelta, making heavy use of poultry, legumes, vegetables, and fruits. Staple dishes includemahshi, rice-stuffed vegetables and grape leaves,falafel, mainly known locally asta‘ameya,shawarma,kabab, andkofta. Traditional Egyptian specialties includeful medames, mashed fava beans;feteer, flaky, layered pie with various fillings;[384]hawawshi, spiced minced meat baked inside bread;[385]molokhiya, a jute leaf stew; andkoshary, a mix of lentils, rice, and pasta. Many Egyptian dishes are traditionally prepared hands on at home, often slow-cooked, based on the culinary practices of rural kitchens passed down through generations,[386] including stews such asbamia, okra stew;qolqas, taro root stew; and baked dishes, such asrozz me‘ammar, a baked rice dish made with milk, butter, andeshta; as well asmacarona bil-bechamel, a pasta bake withpenne, spiced meat sauce, andbéchamel.
Bread holds a central place in Egyptian cuisine and dining traditions, with more than 60 different types found across the country.[387]Eish baladi, a round, whole-wheat flatbread, is a staple of nearly every meal and is commonly used as an edible utensil for dipping and scooping rather than simply accompanying dishes.[388][389] Cheesemaking in Egypt dates back to theFirst Dynasty,[390] withDomiati cheese being the most widely consumed today.[391][392] Meat plays an important role in Egyptian cuisine, with poultry such assquab,[393] chicken, duck,quail, and goose being common, alongside lamb and beef for grilling and stews.[394] Cured meats such asbastirma andsogoq are traditionally consumed. Egyptianbastirma is made from salted, spiced, and air-dried beef or water buffalo,[395][396] andsogoq, a spicy sausage of ground beef stuffed into thin casings and left to dry and ferment.[397][398] Fish, especiallytilapia andmullet, are widely consumed, with seafood in general being particularly prevalent in coastal cities likeAlexandria,Suez, andPort Said. A large portion of Egyptian cuisine is vegetarian due to limited grazing land, historical agricultural practices, and the religious customs ofCoptic Christians, who periodically observe avegan diet.[399]
Football is the most popularnational sport of Egypt. TheCairo Derby is one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world.[403]Al Ahly is the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivalsZamalek SC. They are known as the "African Club of the Century". With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world's most successful club in terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy'sA.C. Milan and Argentina'sBoca Juniors, both having eighteen.[404]
TheEgyptian national football team, known as the Pharaohs, won theAfrican Cup of Nations seven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one which has reached the top 10 of the FIFA world rankings, Egypt has qualified for theFIFA World Cup three times. Two goals from star playerMohamed Salah in their last qualifying game took Egypt through to the2018 FIFA World Cup.[405] The Egyptian Youth National team Young Pharaohs won the Bronze Medal of the2001 FIFA youth world cup in Argentina. Egypt was 4th place in the football tournament in the1928 and the1964 Olympics.
Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been competitive in international championships since the 1930s.Amr Shabana,Ali Farag andRamy Ashour are Egypt's best players and all were ranked the world's number one squash player. Egypt has won the Squash World Championships five times, with the last title being in2019.
^WhileIslam is the majority and official religion of the country, the size of the country's historicChristian minority is highly controversial and disputed by various entities and groups. Estimates range from as low as 5% to as high as 20%. Since 2006, religion has been omitted from censuses after widespread claims that the figures had been distorted.[3][4][5]
^The population of Egypt is estimated as being 90% Muslim, 9% Coptic Christian and 1% other Christian, though estimates vary.[269][270][271] Microsoft Encarta Online similarly estimates the Sunni population at 90% of the total.[272] ThePew Forum on Religion and Public Life gave a higher estimate of the Muslim population, at 94.6%.[273] In 2017, the government-owned newspaperAl Ahram estimated the percentage of Christians at 10 to 15%.[4]
^Truex, Rory; Tavana, Daniel L. (July 2019). "Implicit Attitudes toward an Authoritarian Regime".The Journal of Politics.81 (3):1014–1027.doi:10.1086/703209.ISSN0022-3816.S2CID203513334.
^Goldschmidt, Arthur (1988).Modern Egypt: The Formation of a Nation-State. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p. 5.ISBN978-0-86531-182-4.Archived from the original on 17 December 2020. Retrieved20 June 2015.Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world's oldest nation. For most of their history, Egypt has been a state, but only in recent years has it been truly a nation-state, with a government claiming the allegiance of its subjects on the basis of a common identity.
^Crabitès, Pierre (2013) [1935].Ibrahim of Egypt. Vol. 8. Routledge. p. 1.ISBN978-0-415-81121-7.Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved10 February 2013.... on July 9, 1805, Constantinople conferred upon Muhammad Ali the pashalik of Cairo ...
^"Lessons from/for BRICSAM about south–north Relations at the Start of the 21st Century: Economic Size Trumps All Else?".International Studies Review.9.
^Z., T. (1928)."Il-Belt (Valletta)"(PDF).Il-Malti (in Maltese).2 (1) (2 ed.). Il-Ghaqda tal-Kittieba tal-Malti: 35. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 17 April 2016.
^The ending of the Hebrew form is either adual or an ending identical to the dual in form (perhaps alocative), and this has sometimes been taken as referring to the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. However, the application of the (possibly) "dual" ending to some toponyms and other words, a development peculiar to Hebrew, does not in fact imply any "two-ness" about the place. The ending is found, for example, in the Hebrew words for such single entities as "water" ("מַיִם"), "noon" ("צָהֳרַיִם"), "sky/heaven" ("שָׁמַיִם"), and in theqere – but not the original "ketiv" – of "Jerusalem" ("ירושל[י]ם"). It should also be noted that the dual ending – which may or may not be what the-áyim in "Mitzráyim" actually represents – was available to other Semitic languages, such as Arabic, but was not applied to Egypt. Seeinter alia Aaron Demsky ("Hebrew Names in the Dual Form and the Toponym Yerushalayim" in Demsky (ed.)These Are the Names: Studies in Jewish Onomastics, Vol. 3 (Ramat Gan, 2002), pp. 11–20), Avi Hurvitz (A Concise Lexicon of Late Biblical Hebrew: Linguistic Innovations in the Writings of the Second Temple Period (Brill, 2014),p. 128) and Nadav Na'aman ("Shaaraim – The Gateway to the Kingdom of Judah" inThe Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, Vol. 8 (2008), articleno. 24Archived 17 October 2014 at theWayback Machine, pp. 2–3).
^Antonio Loprieno, "Egyptian and Coptic Phonology", inPhonologies of Asia and Africa (including the Caucasus). Vol 1 of 2. Ed: Alan S Kaye. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1997: p. 449
^Jones, Prudence J. (2006).Cleopatra: A Sourcebook. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 14.ISBN978-0806137414.They were members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Macedonian Greeks, who ruled Egypt after the death of its conqueror, Alexander the Great.
^Bowman, Alan K (1996).Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC – AD 642 (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 25–26.ISBN0-520-20531-6.
^abJankowski, James.Egypt, A Short History. p. 112.
^Collins, Robert O.; Collins, Professor of History Robert O. (29 May 2008).A History of Modern Sudan. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-85820-5.Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved10 November 2020.
^Amin, Galal.Egypt's Economic Predicament: A Study in the Interaction of External Pressure, Political Folly, and Social Tension in Egypt, 1960–1990, 1995
^Vatikiotis, P. J. (1991).The History of Modern Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to Mubarak (4. ed.). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 443.ISBN978-0-297-82034-5.
^"Egypt: Events of 2005".Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. Human Rights Watch. 5 January 2006.Archived from the original on 14 November 2008. Retrieved8 February 2013.
^A.M. Abdel-Azeem,The History, Fungal Biodiversity, Conservation, and Future Perspectives for Mycology in Egypt IMA Fungus 1 (2): 123–142 (2010).
^Ibrahim, Kamal M.; Hosni, Hasnaa A.; Peterson, Paul M. (2016).Grasses of Egypt. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press.Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved16 April 2016.
^abEgyptian Water Use Management Project (EWUP), 1984. Improving Egypt's Irrigation System in the Old Lands, Final Report. Colorado State University and Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources.
^Talani, Leila Simona (1 January 2010).From Egypt to Europe: globalisation and migration across the Mediterranean. Tauris Academic Studies.OCLC650606660.
^The language may have survived in isolated pockets inUpper Egypt as late as the 19th century, according to James Edward Quibell, "When did Coptic become extinct?" inZeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 39 (1901), p. 87.
^Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn al-Nafis as a philosopher",Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher]Archived February 6, 2008, at theWayback Machine,Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
^abAnsari, Abdul Latif (2010).Thoughts and Ideologies of Mikhail Nu'aima, the Mahjar Poet in the development of Modern Arabic Poetry; A critical study. Shodhganja. Chapter 1.hdl:10603/116505.
^Vatikiotis, P.J. (1991).The history of modern Egypt: from Muhammad Ali to Mubarak (4 ed.). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 486.ISBN978-0-297-82034-5.
1Entirely claimed by both Morocco and theSADR.2Spanish exclaves claimed by Morocco.3Portuguese archipelago claimed by Spain.4Disputed between Egypt and the Sudan.5Unclaimed territory located between Egypt and the Sudan.6Disputed between South Sudan and the Sudan.7Part of Chad, formerly claimed by Libya.8Disputed between Morocco and Spain
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