In 1963, Said joinedColumbia University as a member of the English andComparative Literature faculties, where he taught and worked until 2003. He lectured at more than 200 other universities in North America, Europe, and the Middle East.[11]
Said's childhood was split between Jerusalem and Cairo: he was enrolled in Jerusalem'sSt. George's School, a British boys' school run by the localAnglican Diocese, but stopped going to his classes when growing intercommunal violence betweenPalestinian Arabs andPalestinian Jews made it too dangerous for him to continue attending, prompting his family to leave Jerusalem at the onset of the1947–1949 Palestine War.[29] By the late 1940s, Said was inCairo, enrolled at the Cairo branch ofVictoria College.[18]: 179 However, he was expelled in 1951 for troublesome behaviour, though his academic performance was high. Having relocated to the United States, Said attendedNorthfield Mount Hermon School inMassachusetts—a socially élite, college-prep boarding school where he struggled with social alienation for a year. Nonetheless, he continued to excel academically and achieved the rank of either first (valedictorian) or second (salutatorian) out of a class of 160 students.[30]
In retrospect, he viewed being sent far from theMiddle East as a parental decision much influenced by "the prospects of deracinated people, like us the Palestinians, being so uncertain that it would be best to send me as far away as possible."[30] The realities of peripatetic life—of interwoven cultures, of feeling out of place, and of homesickness—so affected the schoolboy Edward that themes of dissonance feature in the work and worldview of the academic Said.[30] At school's end, he had become Edward W. Said, and was fluent in English, French, and Arabic. He graduated with an A.B. in English fromPrinceton University in 1957 after completing a senior thesis titled "The Moral Vision:André Gide andGraham Greene."[31] He later received Master of Arts (1960) and Doctor of Philosophy (1964) degrees inEnglish literature fromHarvard University.[18]: 82–83 [1]
Career
In 1963, Said joinedColumbia University as a member of the English andComparative Literature faculties, where he taught and worked until 2003. In 1974, he was Visiting Professor of Comparative Literature at Harvard; during the 1975–76 period, he was a Fellow of the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Science, atStanford University. In 1977, he became the Parr Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Columbia University, and subsequently was the Old Dominion Foundation Professor in the Humanities; and in 1979 was Visiting Professor of Humanities at Johns Hopkins University.[32]
In his work, Said frequently researches the term and concept of thecultural archive, especially in his bookCulture and Imperialism (1993). He states the cultural archive is a major site where investments in imperial conquest are developed, and that these archives include "narratives, histories, and travel tales."[36] Said emphasizes the role of the Western imperial project in the disruption of cultural archives, and theorizes that disciplines such as comparative literature, English, and anthropology can be directly linked to the concept of empire.
The 19th-century novelistJoseph Conrad is the subject of Said's first book,Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography (1966).
Said's first published book,Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography (1966), was an expansion of the doctoral dissertation he presented to earn the PhD degree.Abdirahman Hussein said inEdward Saïd: Criticism and Society (2010), that Conrad's novellaHeart of Darkness (1899) was "foundational to Said's entire career and project".[37][38] InBeginnings: Intention and Method (1974), Said analyzed the theoretical bases of literary criticism by drawing on the insights ofVico,Valéry,Nietzsche,de Saussure,Lévi-Strauss,Husserl, andFoucault.[39] Said's later works included
The World, the Text, and the Critic (1983),
Nationalism, Colonialism, and Literature: Yeats and Decolonization (1988),
Said became an established cultural critic with the bookOrientalism (1978), acritique ofOrientalism as the source of the false cultural representations in western-eastern relations. The thesis ofOrientalism proposes the existence of a "subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arabo–Islamic peoples and their culture",[40] which originates fromWestern culture's long tradition of false, romanticized images of Asia, in general, and the Middle East in particular. Said wrote that such cultural representations have served as implicit justifications for the colonial and imperial ambitions of the European powers and of the U.S. Likewise, Said denounced the political and the cultural malpractices of the régimes of the ruling Arab élites who he feltinternalized the false and romanticized representations ofArabic culture that were created by Anglo–American Orientalists.[40]
The cover of the bookOrientalism (1978) is a detail from the 19th-century Orientalist paintingThe Snake Charmer, byJean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904).
Orientalism proposed that much Western study of Islamic civilization was political intellectualism, meant for the self-affirmation of European identity, rather than objective academic study; thus, the academic field of Oriental studies functioned as a practical method of cultural discrimination and imperialist domination—that is to say, the Western Orientalist knows more about "the Orient" than do "the Orientals."[40][41]: 12
Western Art,Orientalism continues, has misrepresented the Orient with stereotypes sinceAntiquity, as in the tragedyThe Persians (472 BCE), byAeschylus, where the Greek protagonist falls because he misperceived the true nature of The Orient.[41]: 56–57 The European political domination of Asia has biased even the most outwardly objective Western texts about The Orient, to a degree unrecognized by the Western scholars who appropriated for themselves the production of cultural knowledge—the academic work of studying, exploring, and interpreting the languages, histories, and peoples of Asia. Therefore, Orientalist scholarship implies that thecolonial subaltern (the colonised people) were incapable of thinking, acting, or speaking for themselves, thus are incapable of writing their own national histories. In such imperial circumstances, the Orientalist scholars of the West wrote the history of the Orient—and so constructed the modern, cultural identities of Asia—from the perspective that the West is the cultural standard to emulate, the norm from which the "exotic and inscrutable" Orientals deviate.[41]: 38–41
Criticism ofOrientalism
Orientalism provoked much professional and personal criticism for Said among academics.[42] Traditional Orientalists, such asAlbert Hourani,Robert Graham Irwin,Nikki Keddie,Bernard Lewis, andKanan Makiya, suffered negative consequences, becauseOrientalism affected public perception of their intellectual integrity and the quality of theirOrientalist scholarship.[43][44][46] The historian Keddie said that Said'scritical work about the field of Orientalism had caused, in their academic disciplines:
Some unfortunate consequences ... I think that there has been a tendency in the Middle East [studies] field to adopt the wordOrientalism as a generalized swear-word, essentially referring to people who take the "wrong" position on the Arab–Israeli dispute, or to people who are judged "too conservative." It has nothing to do with whether they are good or not good in their disciplines. So,Orientalism, for many people, is a word that substitutes for thought, and enables people to dismiss certain scholars and their works. I think that is too bad. It may not have been what Edward Saïd meant, at all, but the term has become a kind of slogan.
— Approaches to the History of the Middle East (1994), pp. 144–45.[47]
InOrientalism, Said describedBernard Lewis, the Anglo–American Orientalist, as "a perfect exemplification [of an] Establishment Orientalist [whose work] purports to be objective, liberal scholarship, but is, in reality, very close to being propagandaagainst his subject material."[41]: 315
Lewis responded with a harsh critique ofOrientalism accusing Said of politicizing the scientific study of the Middle East (and Arabic studies in particular); neglecting to critique the scholarly findings of the Orientalists; and giving "free rein" to his biases.[48]
Said retorted that inThe Muslim Discovery of Europe (1982), Lewis responded to his thesis with the claim that the Western quest for knowledge about other societies was unique in its display of disinterested curiosity, which Muslims did not reciprocate towards Europe. Lewis was saying that "knowledge about Europe [was] the only acceptable criterion for true knowledge." The appearance of academic impartiality was part of Lewis's role as an academic authority for zealous "anti–Islamic, anti–Arab, Zionist, and Cold War crusades."[41]: 315 [49] Moreover, in the Afterword to the 1995 edition of the book, Said replied to Lewis's criticisms of the first edition ofOrientalism (1978).[49][41]: 329–54
In the academy,Orientalism became a foundational text of the field ofpost-colonial studies, for what the British intellectualTerry Eagleton said is the book's "central truth ... that demeaning images of the East, and imperialist incursions into its terrain, have historically gone hand in hand."[50]
Both Said's supporters and his critics acknowledge the transformative influence ofOrientalism upon scholarship in the humanities; critics say that the thesis is an intellectually limiting influence upon scholars, whilst supporters say that the thesis is intellectually liberating.[51][52] The fields of post-colonial and cultural studies attempt to explain the "post-colonial world, its peoples, and their discontents",[2][53] for which the techniques of investigation and efficacy inOrientalism, proved especially applicable inMiddle Eastern studies.[7]
InEastern Europe, Milica Bakić–Hayden developed the concept ofNesting Orientalisms (1992), derived from the ideas of the historian Larry Wolff (Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, 1994) and Said's ideas inOrientalism (1978).[60] The Bulgarian historianMaria Todorova (Imagining the Balkans, 1997) presented theethnologic concept of Nesting Balkanisms (Ethnologia Balkanica, 1997), which is derived from Milica Bakić–Hayden's concept of Nesting Orientalisms.[61]
InThe Impact of "Biblical Orientalism" in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Palestine (2014), the historianLorenzo Kamel, presented the concept of "Biblical Orientalism" with an historical analysis of the simplifications of the complex, local Palestinian reality, which occurred from the 1830s until the early 20th century.[62] Kamel said that the selective usage and simplification of religion, in approaching the place known as "The Holy Land", created a view that, as a place, the Holy Land has no human history other than as the place where Bible stories occurred, rather than as Palestine, a country inhabited by many peoples.
The post-colonial discourse presented inOrientalism, also influenced post-colonial theology and post-colonial biblical criticism, by which method the analytical reader approaches a scripture from the perspective of a colonial reader.[63] Another book in this area isPostcolonial Theory (1998), byLeela Gandhi, explains Post-colonialism in terms of how it can be applied to the wider philosophical and intellectual context of history.[64]
Political activities
Arab–Israeli conflict
In 1967, consequent to theSix-Day War, Said became a public intellectual when he acted politically to counter misrepresentations (factual, historical, cultural) with which American news media explained theArab–Israeli conflict; alleged reportage divorced from the historical realities of theMiddle East, and fromIsrael and thePalestinian territories. To address, explain, and correct perceivedorientalism, Said publishedThe Arab Portrayed (1968), a descriptive essay about images of "theArab" that are meant to evade specific discussion of the historical and cultural realities of the peoples represented in the Middle East, featured in journalism (print, photograph, television) and some types of scholarship (specialist journals).[65]
During a lecture conference at theUniversity of Washington in 2003, Said affirmed thatIsraeli Jews had grounds for a territorial claim toPalestine (or theLand of Israel), but maintained that it was not "the only claim or the main claim" vis-à-vis all of the other ethnic groups (includingJews and Arabs) who have inhabited the region throughout human history:
Halleran: "Professor Said, do theZionists have any historical claim to the lands of Israel?"
Said: "Of course! But I would not say that the Jewish claim, or the Zionist claim, is the only claim or the main claim; I say that it is a claim among many others. Certainly, the Arabs have a much greater claim becausethey have had a longer history of inhabitance—of actual residence in Palestine—than the Jews did. If you look at thehistory of Palestine, there's been some quite interesting work done bybiblical archaeologists... you'll see that the period of actualIsraelite—as it was called in theOld Testament—dominance in Palestine amounts to about 200 to 250 years. But there wereMoabites, there wereJebusites, there wereCanaanites, there werePhilistines, there were many other people in Palestine at the time and before and after. And to isolate one of them and say, 'That's the real owner of the land,' I mean, that is—that is fundamentalism. Because the only way you can back it up is say, 'Well,God gave it to us.' [...] So, I think the people who have a history of residence in Palestine for a certain amount of time—including Jews, yes, and, of course, the Arabs—have a claim. But... this is very important: I don't think any claim [...] nobody has a claim that overrides all the others and entitles that person with that so-called claim to drive people out!"
— "Imperial Continuity – Palestine, Iraq, and U.S. Policy"[67] (8 May 2003)
Said's argument against theReligious Zionism traditionally espoused byJewish fundamentalists (i.e., citingGod to project the Jewish/Israeli claim as superior to the Arab/Palestinian claim) asserted that such justifications were inherently irrational because they would, among other factors, enableChristians andMuslims of all ethnic and cultural backgrounds to lay superseding territorial claims to Palestine on the basis of their faith.
Palestinian National Council
From 1977 until 1991, Said was an independent member of thePalestinian National Council (PNC).[68] In 1988, he was a proponent of thetwo-state solution to theIsraeli–Palestinian conflict, and voted for the establishment of theState of Palestine at a meeting of the PNC in Algiers. In 1993, Said quit his membership in the Palestinian National Council, to protest the internal politics that led to the signing of theOslo Accords (Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, 1993), which he thought had unacceptable terms, and because the terms had been rejected by theMadrid Conference of 1991.
Said disliked the Oslo Accords for not producing an independent State of Palestine, and because they were politically inferior to a plan thatYasir Arafat had rejected—a plan Said had presented to Arafat on behalf of the U.S. government in the late 1970s.[69] Especially troublesome to Said was his belief that Yasir Arafat had betrayed theright of return of the Palestinian refugees to their houses and properties in the Green Line territories ofpre-1967 Israel, and that Arafat ignored the growing political threat of theIsraeli settlements in the occupied territories that had been established since theconquest of Palestine in 1967.
The administrative domains of the Palestinian Authority (red)
In the mid-1990s, Said wrote the foreword to the history bookJewish History, Jewish Religion: The Weight of Three Thousand Years (1994), byIsrael Shahak, about Jewish fundamentalism, which presents the cultural proposition that Israel's mistreatment of the Palestinians is rooted in aJudaic requirement (of permission) for Jews to commit crimes, including murder, against Gentiles (non-Jews). In his foreword, Said said thatJewish History, Jewish Religion is "nothing less than a concise history of classic and modernJudaism, insofar as these are relevant to the understanding of modern Israel"; and praised the historian Shahak for describing contemporary Israel as a nation subsumed in a "Judeo–Nazi" cultural ambiance that allowed thedehumanization of the PalestinianOther:[73]
In all my works, I remained fundamentally critical of a gloating and uncritical nationalism. ... My view of Palestine ... remains the same today: I expressed all sorts of reservations about the insouciant nativism, and militant militarism of the nationalist consensus; I suggested, instead, a critical look at the Arab environment, Palestinian history, and the Israeli realities, with the explicit conclusion that only a negotiated settlement, between the two communities of suffering, Arab and Jewish, would provide respite from the unending war.[74]
In 1998, Said madeIn Search of Palestine (1998), a BBC documentary film about Palestine, past and present. In the company of his son, Wadie, Said revisited the places of his boyhood, and confronted injustices meted out to ordinary Palestinians in the contemporaryWest Bank. Despite the social and cultural prestige afforded to BBC cinema products in the U.S., the documentary was never broadcast by any American television company.[75][76]
Lebanon stone-throwing incident
On 3 July 2000, whilst touring the Middle East with his son, Wadie, Said was photographed throwing a stone across theBlue Line Lebanese–Israel border, which image elicited much political criticism about his action demonstrating an inherent, personal sympathy with terrorism; and, inCommentary magazine, the journalist Edward Alexander labelled Said as "The Professor of Terror", for aggression against Israel.[77] Said explained the stone-throwing as a two-fold action, personal and political; a man-to-man contest-of-skill, between a father and his son, and an Arab man's gesture of joy at the end of theIsraeli occupation of Southern Lebanon (1985–2000): "It was a pebble; there was nobody there. The guardhouse was at least half a mile away."[78]
For throwing a stone at an Israeli guardhouse across the Blue Line Lebanese–Israeli border,Commentary magazine labelled Said "The Professor of Terror" in 2000.[77]
Said described the incident as trivial and said that he "threw the stone as a symbolic act" into "an empty place". The Beirut newspaperAs-Safir (The Ambassador) interviewed a Lebanese local resident who said that Said was less than ten metres (ca. 30 ft.) from theIsrael Defense Force (IDF) soldiers manning the two-storey guardhouse, when he threw the stone, which hit the barbed wire fence in front of the guardhouse.[79] In the U.S., Said's action was criticised by some students at Columbia University and theAnti-Defamation League ofB'nai B'rith International (Sons of the Covenant). The university provost published a five-page letter stating that Said's action was protected underacademic freedom: "To my knowledge, the stone was directed at no-one; no law was broken; no indictment was made; no criminal or civil action has been taken against Professor Saïd."[80]
In February 2001, the Freud Society in Austria cancelled a lecture by Said due to the stone-throwing incident.[81] The President of the Freud Society said "[t]he majority [of the society] decided to cancel the Freud lecture to avoid an internal clash. I deeply regret that this has been done to Professor Said".[78]
Criticism of U.S. foreign policy
In the revised edition ofCovering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World (1997), Said criticized the Orientalist bias of the Western news media's reportage about the Middle East and Islam, especially the tendency to editorialize "speculations about the latest conspiracy to blow up buildings, sabotage commercial airliners, and poison water supplies."[82] He criticized the American military involvement in theKosovo War (1998–99) as an imperial action; and described theIraq Liberation Act (1998), promulgated during the Clinton Administration, as the political license that predisposed the U.S. to invade Iraq in 2003, which was authorised with theIraq Resolution (2 October 2002); and the continual support of Israel by successive U.S. presidential governments, as actions meant to perpetuate regional political instability in the Middle East.[83]
In the event, despite being sick with leukemia, as a public intellectual, Said continued criticising theU.S. Invasion of Iraq in mid-2003;[84] and, in the EgyptianAl-Ahram Weekly newspaper, in the article "Resources of Hope" (2 April 2003), Said said that the U.S. war against Iraq was a politically ill-conceived military enterprise.[85]
Under FBI surveillance
In 2003,Haidar Abdel-Shafi, Ibrahim Dakak,Mustafa Barghouti, and Said established Al-Mubadara (thePalestinian National Initiative), headed by Barghouti, a third-party reformist, democratic party meant to be an alternative to the usualtwo-party politics of Palestine. Its ideology is to be an alternative to the extremist politicsFatah and theIslamistHamas. Said's founding of the group, as well as his other international political activities concerning Palestine, were noticed by the U.S. government, and Said came under FBI surveillance, which became more intensive after 1972.David Price, an anthropologist atEvergreen State College, requested the FBI file on Said through theFreedom of Information Act on behalf of the left of center magazineCounterPunch and published a report there on his findings.[86] The released pages of Said's FBI files show that the FBI read Said's books and reported on their contents to Washington.[87]: 158 [88]
Besides having been a public intellectual, Edward Said was an accomplished pianist, worked as the music critic forThe Nation magazine, and wrote four books about music:Musical Elaborations (1991);Parallels and Paradoxes: Explorations in Music and Society (2002), with Daniel Barenboim as co-author;On Late Style: Music and Literature Against the Grain (2006); andMusic at the Limits (2007) in which final book he spoke of finding musical reflections of his literary and historical ideas in bold compositions and strong performances.[89][90]
Elsewhere in the musical world, the composerMohammed Fairouz acknowledged the deep influence of Edward Said upon his works; compositionally, Fairouz'sFirst Symphony thematically alludes to the essay "Homage to a Belly-Dancer" (1990), aboutTahia Carioca, the Egyptian dancer, actress, and political militant; and a piano sonata, titledReflections on Exile (1984), which thematically refers to the emotions inherent to being an exile.[91][92][93]
West–Eastern Divan Orchestra
In 1999, Said and Barenboim co-founded theWest-Eastern Divan Orchestra, composed of young Israeli, Palestinian, and Arab musicians. They also established The Barenboim–Said Foundation inSeville, to develop education-through-music projects. Besides managing the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra, the Barenboim–Said Foundation assists with the administration of the Academy of Orchestral Studies, the Musical Education in Palestine Project, and the Early Childhood Musical Education Project, in Seville.[94]
Honors and awards
Besides honors, memberships, and postings to prestigious organizations worldwide, Edward Said was awarded some twenty honorary university degrees in the course of his professional life as an academic, critic, and Man of Letters.[95] Among the honors bestowed to him were:
He twice received theLionel Trilling Book Award; the first occasion was the inaugural bestowing of said literary award in 1976, forBeginnings: Intention and Method (1974). He also received the
Wellek Prize of the American Comparative Literature Association
First U.S. citizen to receive theSultan Owais Prize (for Cultural & Scientific Achievements, 1996–1997).[97]
The autobiographyOut of Place (1999)[18] was bestowed three awards, the 1999New Yorker Book Award for Non-Fiction; the 2000Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for Non-Fiction; and the Morton Dauwen Zabel Award in Literature.[98]
In 2016,California State University, Fresno started examining applicants for a newly created Professorship in Middle East Studies named after Edward Said, but after months of examining applicants, Fresno State canceled the search. Some observers claim that the cancellation was due to pressure from pro-Israeli individuals and groups.[116]
^abRobert Young,White Mythologies: Writing History and the West, New York & London: Routledge, 1990.
^Ferial Jabouri Ghazoul, ed. (2007).Edward Saïd and Critical Decolonization. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 290–.ISBN978-977-416-087-5. Retrieved19 November 2011.Edward W. Saïd (1935–2003) was one of the most influential intellectuals in the twentieth century.
^Zamir, Shamoon (2005), "Saïd, Edward W.", in Jones, Lindsay (ed.),Encyclopedia of Religion, Second Edition, vol. 12, Macmillan Reference USA, Thomas Gale, pp. 8031–32,Edward W. Saïd (1935–2003) is best known as the author of the influential and widely-readOrientalism (1978) ... His forceful defense of secular humanism and of the public role of the intellectual, as much as his trenchant critiques of Orientalism, and his unwavering advocacy of the Palestinian cause, made Saïd one of the most internationally influential cultural commentators writing out of the United States in the last quarter of the twentieth century.
^Gentz, Joachim (2009)."Orientalism/Occidentalism".Keywords re-oriented. interKULTUR, European-Chinese intercultural studies, Volume IV. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. pp. 41–.ISBN978-3-940344-86-1. Retrieved18 November 2011.Edward Saïd's influentialOrientalism (1979) effectively created adiscursive field incultural studies, stimulating fresh critical analysis of Western academic work on "The Orient". Although the book, itself, has been criticized from many angles, it is still considered to be the seminal work to the field.
^Richard T. Gray; Ruth V. Gross; Rolf J. Goebel; Clayton Koelb, eds. (2005).A Franz Kafka encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 212–.ISBN978-0-313-30375-3. Retrieved18 November 2011.In its current usage,Orient is a key term of cultural critique that derives from Edward W. Saïd's influential bookOrientalism.
^"Between Worlds",Reflections on Exile, and Other Essays (2002) pp. 561, 565.
^Sherry, Mark (2010)."Said, Edward Wadie". In John R. Shook (ed.).Said, Edward Wadie (1935–2003).The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers. Oxford: Continuum.ISBN978-0-19-975466-3.
^Andrew N. Rubin,"Edward W. Said",Arab Studies Quarterly, Fall 2004: p. 1. Retrieved 5 January 2010.
^Said, Edward (10 January 1999)."The One-State Solution".The New York Times.ISSN0362-4331. Retrieved27 December 2023.Given the collapse of theNetanyahu Government over theWye peace agreement, it is time to question whether the entire process begun inOslo in 1993 is the right instrument for bringing peace between Palestinians and Israelis. It is my view that thepeace process has in fact put off the real reconciliation that must occur if the hundred-year war betweenZionism and the Palestinian people is to end. Oslo set the stage for separation, but real peace can come only with abinational Israeli–Palestinian state.
^Iskander, Adel; Hakem Rustom (2010).Edward Saïd: A Legacy of Emancipation and Representation. University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-24546-4.[Edward Wadie] Saïd was of Christian background, a confirmed agnostic, perhaps even an atheist, yet he had a rage for justice and a moral sensibility lacking in most [religious] believers. Saïd retained his own ethical compass without God, and persevered in an exile, once forced, from Cairo, and now chosen, affected by neither malice nor fear.
^Cornwell, John (2010).Newman's Unquiet Grave: The Reluctant Saint. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 128.ISBN9781441150844.A hundred and fifty years on, Edward Saïd, an agnostic of Palestinian origins, who strove to correct false Western impressions of 'Orientalism', would declare Newman's universitydiscourses both true and 'incomparably eloquent'. ...
^Edward Saïd,Power, Politics and Culture, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2001: pp. 77–79.
^abcWindschuttle, Keith. "Edward Saïd's 'Orientalism revisited'",The New Criterion 17 January 1999.Archived 1 May 2008, at the Internet Archive. Retrieved 23 November 2011.
^abcdefSaid, Edward (2003) [Reprinted with a new preface, first published 1978].Orientalism. London: Penguin Books.ISBN0141187425.
^Lewis, Bernard. "The Question of Orientalism",Islam and the West, London: 1993. pp. 99, 118.
^Irwin, Robert.For Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and Their Enemies London:Allen Lane: 2006.
^"Said's Splash"Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America, Policy Papers 58 (Washington, D.C.: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001).
^Martin Kramer said that "Fifteen years after [the] publication ofOrientalism, the UCLA historian Nikki Keddie (whose work Saïd praised inCovering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World) allowed thatOrientalism was 'important, and, in many ways, positive' ".[45]
^Approaches to the History of the Middle East, Nancy Elizabeth Gallagher, Ed., London:Ithaca Press, 1994: pp. 144–45.
^Kramer, Martin (2001).Ivory Towers on Sand: The Failure of Middle Eastern Studies in America.
^Andrew N. Rubin, "Techniques of Trouble: Edward Saïd and the Dialectics of Cultural Philology",The South Atlantic Quarterly, 102.4 (2003). pp. 862–76.
^Nicholas Dirks,Castes of Mind, Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001.
^Ronald Inden,Imagining India, New York: Oxford UP, 1990.
^Simon Springer, "Culture of Violence or Violent Orientalism? Neoliberalisation and Imagining the 'Savage Other' in Post-transitional Cambodia",Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 34.3 (2009): 305–19.
^Bhabha, Homi K.,Nation and Narration, New York & London: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1990.
^Ethnologia Balkanica. Sofia: Prof. M. Drinov Academic Pub. House. 1995. p. 37.OCLC41714232.The idea of "nesting orientalisms", in Baki–Hayden 1995, and the related concept of "nesting balkanisms", in Todorova 1997. ...
^Fish, Rachel (2010). "Standing up for Academic Integrity on Campus". In Pollack, Eunice G. (ed.).Antisemitism on the Campus: Past and Present. Boston: Academic Studies Press. p. 376.ISBN9781618110428.
^"Khalidi, Rashid".Department of History – Columbia University. 2 September 2016. Retrieved25 November 2021.
Brennan, Timothy (2021).Places of Mind. A Life of Edward Said. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.ISBN9780374146535.
Cornwell, John (2010).Newman's Unquiet Grave: The Reluctant Saint. Continuum International.ISBN9781441150844.
Gentz, Joachim (2009)."Orientalism/Occidentalism".Keywords re-oriented. interKULTUR, European-Chinese intercultural studies, Volume IV. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. pp. 41–.ISBN978-3-940344-86-1. Retrieved18 November 2011.
Ghazoul, Ferial Jabouri, ed. (2007).Edward Said and Critical Decolonization. American University in Cairo Press.ISBN978-977-416-087-5. Retrieved19 November 2011.Edward W. Said (1935–2003) was one of the most influential intellectuals in the twentieth century.
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