Education is a wide phenomenon that applies to all age groups and covers formal education (top row) as well asnon-formal andinformal education (bottom row).
The precise definition of education is disputed, and there are disagreements about what theaims of education are and to what extent education is different fromindoctrination by fosteringcritical thinking. These disagreements affect how to identify, measure, and improve forms of education. Fundamentally, educationsocializes children into society by teaching cultural values andnorms. It equips them with the skills needed to become productive members of society. This way, it stimulates economic growth and raises awareness of local andglobal problems. Organized institutions affect many aspects of education. For example, governments seteducation policies to determine when school classes happen, what is taught, and who can or must attend.International organizations, likeUNESCO, have been influential in promotingprimary education for all children.
Inprehistory, education happened informally throughoral communication andimitation. With the rise of ancientcivilizations,writing was invented, and the amount of knowledge grew. This caused a shift from informal to formal education. Initially, formal education was mainly available to elites and religious groups. The invention of theprinting press in the 15th century made books more widely available. This increased generalliteracy. Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries, public education became more important. This development led to the worldwide process of making primary education available to all,free of charge, andcompulsory up to a certain age. Today, over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.
The term "education" is derived from the Latin wordseducare, meaning "to bring up" andeducere, meaning "to bring forth".[1] The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields.[2] Many agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission ofknowledge, skills, and character traits.[3] Extensive debate surrounds its exact nature beyond these general features. One approach views education as a process that occurs during events such as schooling, teaching, and learning.[4] Another outlook understands education not as a process but as themental states and dispositions of educated persons that result from this process.[5] Additionally, the term may also refer to the academic field that studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in teaching and learning.[6] Having a clear idea of what the term means matters when trying to identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve educational practices.[7]
Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying the specific features that are exclusive to all forms of education. Education theoristR. S. Peters, for instance, outlines three essential features of education, which include that knowledge and understanding are imparted to thestudent and that this process is beneficial and done in a morally appropriate manner.[8] Such precise definitions often succeed at characterizing the most typical forms of education. However, they often face criticism because less common types of education occasionally fall outside their parameters.[9] The difficulty of dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise definitions can be avoided by offering less exact definitions based onfamily resemblance instead. This means that all the forms of education are similar to each other, but they need not share aset of essential features that all of them have in common.[10] Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, hold that the term "education" is context-dependent.[a][11]
Evaluative orthick conceptions[b] of education state that it is part of the nature of education to lead to some kind of improvement. They contrast with thin conceptions, which provide a value-neutral explanation.[13] Some theorists provide a descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is commonly used inordinary language. Prescriptive conceptions, by contrast, define what good education is or how education should be practiced.[14] Many thick and prescriptive conceptions see education as an activity that tries to achieve certainaims,[15] which may range from acquiring knowledge and learning to thinkrationally to nurturing character traits like kindness and honesty.[16]
Various scholars stress the role ofcritical thinking to distinguish education fromindoctrination.[17] They state that mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling beliefs in the student, independent of whether the beliefs are rational;[18] whereas education also fosters the rational ability to critically reflect on and question those beliefs.[19] It is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly distinguished since some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the early stages of education while the child's mind is not yet sufficiently developed. This applies to cases in which young children need to learn something without being able to understand the underlying reasons, like certain safety rules and hygiene practices.[20]
Education can be characterized from the teacher's or the student's perspective. Teacher-centered definitions focus on the perspective and role of the teacher in the transmission of knowledge and skills in amorally appropriate way.[21] Student-centered definitions analyze education from the student's involvement in the learning process and hold that this process transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences.[22] Definitions taking both perspectives into account are also possible. This can take the form of describing education as a process of a shared experience of discovering a common world andsolving problems.[23]
Types
There are many classifications of education. One of them depends on the institutional framework and distinguishes between formal, non-formal, and informal education. Another classification includes distinct levels of education based on factors like the student's age and the complexity of the content. Further categories focus on the topic, the teaching method, the medium used, and the funding.[24]
Formal, non-formal, and informal
Tutoring is an example of non-formal education, while learning how to cook and other life-skils from one's parents is example of informal education.
The most common division is between formal,non-formal, andinformal education.[25][c] Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework. Such frameworks have a chronological and hierarchical order: the modern schooling system has classes based on the student's age and progress, extending from primary school to university. Formal education is usually controlled and guided by thegovernment. It tends to becompulsory up to a certain age.[27]
Non-formal and informal education take place outside the formal schooling system. Non-formal education is a middle ground. Like formal education, it is organized, systematic, and carried out with a clear purpose, as in the case oftutoring, fitness classes, and thescouting movement.[28] Informal education happens in an unsystematic way through daily experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and non-formal education, there is usually no designated authority figure responsible for teaching.[29] Informal education takes place in many different settings and situations throughout one's life, usually in a spontaneous way. This is how children learn theirfirst language from their parents and how people learn to prepare a dish by cooking together.[30]
Some theorists distinguish the three types based on the location of learning: formal education takes place inschool, non-formal education happens in places that are not regularly visited, like museums, and informal education occurs in places of everyday routines.[31] There are also differences in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be driven byextrinsic motivation for external rewards. In non-formal and informal education, enjoyment of the learning process usually provides intrinsic motivation.[32] The distinction between the three types is normally clear, but some forms of education do not easily fall into one category.[33]
In primitive cultures, most education happened on the informal level and there was mostly no distinction between activities focused on education and other activities. Instead, the whole environment acted as a form of school, and most adults acted as teachers. Informal education is often not efficient enough to teach large quantities of knowledge. To do so, a formal setting and well-trained teachers are usually required. This was one of the reasons why in the course of history, formal education became more and more important. In this process, the experience of education and the discussed topics became more abstract and removed from daily life while more emphasis was put on grasping general patterns and concepts instead of observing and imitating particular forms of behavior.[34]
Early childhood education, also known aspreschool education or nursery education, begins with birth and lasts until the start ofprimary school. It follows the holistic aim of fostering early child development at the physical, mental, and social levels. It plays a key role in socialization andpersonality development and includes various basic skills in the areas of communication, learning, and problem-solving. This way, it aims to prepare children for their entry into primary education.[36] Preschool education is usually optional, but in some countries, such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four.[37]
Primary school classroom in Ethiopia
Primary (or elementary) education usually starts within the ages of five to seven and lasts for four to seven years. It does not have any further entry requirements, and its main goal is to teach the basic skills in the fields of reading, writing, and mathematics. It also covers the core knowledge in other fields, likehistory,geography, thesciences,music, andart. A further aim is to foster personal development.[38] Today, primary education is compulsory in almost all countries, and over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.[39]
Secondary education follows primary education and usually covers the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is commonly divided into lower secondary education (middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (high school, senior high school, orcollege depending on the country). Lower secondary education normally has the completion of primary school as its entry requirement. It aims to extend and deepen the learning outcomes and is more focused on subject-specificcurricula and teachers are specialized in only one or a few specific subjects. One of its aims is to familiarize students with the basic theoretical concepts in the different subjects. This helps create a solid basis forlifelong learning. In some cases, it also includes basic forms ofvocational training.[40] Lower secondary education is compulsory in many countries in Central and East Asia, Europe, and America. In some countries, it is the last stage of compulsory education. Mandatory lower secondary education is not as prevalent in Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West Asia.[41]
A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in the United States
Upper secondary education starts roughly at the age of 15 and aims to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed for employment or tertiary education. Its requirement is usually the completion of lower secondary education. Its subjects are more varied and complex and students can often choose between a few subjects. Its successful completion is commonly tied to a formal qualification in the form of ahigh school diploma.[42] Some types of education after secondary education do not belong to tertiary education and are categorized as post-secondary non-tertiary education. They are similar in complexity to secondary education but tend to focus more on vocational training to prepare students for the job market.[43]
In some countries, tertiary education is used as a synonym ofhigher education, while in others, tertiary education is the wider term.[44] Tertiary education expands upon the foundations of secondary education but has a more narrow and in-depth focus on a specific field or subject. Its completion leads to anacademic degree. It can be divided into four levels: short-cycle tertiary,Bachelor's,Master's, anddoctoral level education. These levels often form a hierarchical structure with later levels depending on the completion of previous levels.[45] Short-cycle tertiary education focuses on practical matters. It includes advanced vocational and professional training to prepare students for the job market in specialized professions.[46] Bachelor's level education, also referred to asundergraduate education, tends to be longer than short-cycle tertiary education. It is usually offered by universities and results in an intermediary academic certification in the form of a bachelor's degree.[47] Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate education. Many programs require independent research in the form of a master's thesis as a requirement for successful completion.[48] Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, normally in the form of a doctor's degree, such as aDoctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually requires the submission of a substantial academic work, such as adissertation. More advanced levels includepost-doctoral studies andhabilitation.[49]
Successful participation in formal education usually results in a form of certification that is required for higher levels of education andcertain professions. Undetectedcheating in exams, for example, by using acheat sheet, threatens to undermine this system if unqualified students are certified.[50]
In most countries, primary and secondary education are free of charge. There are significant global differences in the cost of tertiary education. A few countries, like Sweden, Finland, Poland, and Mexico, offer tertiary education for free or at a low cost. In some countries, like the United States and Singapore, tertiary schooltuition fees are high and students often have to take substantial loans to afford their studies.[51] High costs of education can constitute a significant barrier to students indeveloping countries whose families may be unable to afford school fees, uniforms, and textbooks.[52]
Others
The academic literature discusses many other types of education and distinguishes betweentraditional andalternative education. Traditional education concerns long-established and mainstream schooling practices. It uses teacher-centered education and takes place in a well-regulated school environment. Regulations cover many aspects of education, such as the curriculum and the timeframe when classes start and end.[53]
Homeschooling is one form of alternative education.
Alternative education is an umbrella term for forms of schooling that differ from the mainstream traditional approach. Differences may include learning environment, subjects, or the teacher-student relationship. Alternative schooling is characterized by voluntary participation, relatively small class and school sizes, and personalized instruction. This often results in a more welcoming and emotionally safe atmosphere. Alternative education encompasses many types likecharter schools and special programs for problematic or gifted children. It also includeshomeschooling andunschooling. There are manyalternative schooling traditions, likeMontessori schools,Waldorf schools,Round Square schools,Escuela Nueva schools, free schools, anddemocratic schools.[54] Alternative education also includesindigenous education, which focuses on the transmission of knowledge and skills from an indigenous heritage and employs methods like narration and storytelling.[55] Further types of alternative schools includegurukul schools in India,[56]madrasa schools in the Middle East,[57] andyeshivas in Jewish tradition.[58]
Some distinctions focus on who receives education. Categories by the age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education, adult education, and elderly education.[59] Categories bybiological sex of the students includesingle-sex education andmixed-sex education.[60]Special education is education that is specifically adapted to meet the unique needs of students withdisabilities. It covers various forms of impairments on theintellectual, social, communicative, andphysical levels. It aims to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments. This way, it provides the affected students with access to an appropriate educational structure. When understood in the broadest sense, special education also includes education for verygifted children who need adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential.[61]
Classifications based on the teaching method include teacher-centered education, in which the teacher takes center stage in providing students with information, andstudent-centered education, in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities.[62] For conscious education, learning and teaching happen with a clear purpose in mind. Unconscious education occurs on its own without being consciously planned or guided.[63] This may happen in part through thepersonality of teachers and adults, which can have indirect effects on the development of the student's personality.[64]Evidence-based education uses scientific studies to determine which methods of education work best. Its goal is to maximize the effectiveness of educational practices and policies by ensuring that they are informed by the best availableempirical evidence. It includes evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research.[65]
Autodidacticism, or self-education, happens without the guidance of teachers and institutions. It mainly occurs in adult education and is characterized by the freedom to choose what and when to study, which is why it can be a more fulfilling learning experience. The lack of structure and guidance can result in aimless learning, and the absence ofexternal feedback may lead autodidacts to develop false ideas and inaccurately assess their learning progress.[66] Autodidacticism is closely related tolifelong education, which is an ongoing learning process throughout a person's entire life.[67]
Categories of education based on the subject includescience education,language education,art education,religious education,physical education, andsex education.[68] Special mediums, such as radio or websites, are used indistance education. Examples include e-learning (use of computers),m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. They often take the form ofopen education, in which the courses and materials are made available with a minimal amount of barriers. They contrast with regular classroom or onsite education. Some forms of online education are not open education, such as full online degree programs offered by some universities.[69]
State education, also referred to aspublic education,[d] is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general public. It normally does not require tuition fees and is thus a form offree education.Private education, by contrast, is funded and managed by private institutions. Private schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid education by charging tuition fees.[71] A more detailed classification focuses on the social institution responsible for education, like family, school, civil society, state, and church.[72]
Compulsory education is education that people are legally required to receive. It concerns mainly children who need to visit school up to a certain age. It contrasts with voluntary education, which people pursue by personal choice without a legal requirement.[73]
Role in society
Highly specializedprofessionals, likemedical researchers, often require extensive education to master their fields and contribute to society.
Education plays various roles in society, including in social, economic, and personal fields. On a social level, education makes it possible to establish and sustain a stablesociety. It helps people acquire the basic skills needed to interact with their environment and fulfill their needs and desires. In modern society, this involves a wide range of skills like being able to speak, read, write, solvearithmetic problems, and handleinformation and communications technology. Socialization also includes learning the dominant social andcultural norms and what kinds of behavior are considered appropriate in different contexts. Education enables thesocial cohesion, stability, and peace needed for people to productively engage in daily business. Socialization happens throughout life but is of special relevance to early childhood education. Education plays a key role indemocracies by increasingcivic participation in the form of voting and organizing, and through its tendency to promote equal opportunity for all.[74]
On an economic level, people become productive members of society through education by acquiring the technical and analytical skills needed to pursue their profession, produce goods, and provide services to others. In early societies, there was littlespecialization, and each child would generally learn most of the skills that the community required to function. Modern societies are increasingly complex and many professions are only mastered by relatively few people who receive specialized training in addition to general education. Some of the skills and tendencies learned to function in society may conflict with each other, and their value depends on the context of their usage. For example, cultivating the tendency to be inquisitive and question established teachings promotes critical thinking and innovation, but in some cases, obedience to an authority is required to ensure social stability.[75]
Income and wealth, by educational level (US)
Median annual salaries across educational levels varied by a factor of about 3.[76]
Median accumulated household wealth across educational levels varied by a factor of over 50.[77]
By helping people become productive members of society, education stimulateseconomic growth and reducespoverty. It helps workers become more skilled and thereby increases the quality of the produced goods and services, which in turn leads toprosperity and increased competitiveness.[78] Public education is often understood as a long-term investment to benefit society as a whole. The rate of return is especially high for investments in primary education.[79] Besides increasing economic prosperity, it can also lead to technological and scientific advances as well as decrease unemployment while promotingsocial equity.[80] Increased education is associated with lowerbirth rates, in part because education augments the awareness offamily planning, creates new opportunities for women, and tends to raise theage of marriage.[81]
Education can prepare a country to adapt to changes and successfully face new challenges. It can help raise awareness and contribute to the solution ofcontemporary global problems, such asclimate change,sustainability, and the wideninginequalities between the rich and the poor.[82] By making students aware of how their lives and actions affect others, it may inspire some to work toward realizing a more sustainable and fair world.[83] This way, education serves not just the purpose of maintaining the societal status quo, but can also be an instrument ofsocial development.[84] That applies also to changing circumstances in the economic sector. For example, technological advances, particularly increasedautomation, are accompanied by new demands on the workforce, which education can help address.[85] Changing circumstances may render currently taught skills and knowledge redundant while shifting the importance to other areas. Education can be used to prepare people for such changes by adjusting the curriculum, introducing subjects likedigital literacy, promoting skills in handling new technologies,[86] and including new forms of education such asmassive open online courses.[87]
On a more individual level, education promotespersonal development. This can include factors such as learning new skills, developingtalents, fosteringcreativity, and increasingself-knowledge as well as improvingproblem-solving anddecision-making abilities.[88] Education also has positive effects on health and well-being. Key factors responsible for these effects are that educated individuals tend to be better informed about health issues and adjust their behavior accordingly, have a bettersocial support network andcoping strategies, and have a higher income, which allows them access to high-qualityhealthcare services.[89] The social importance of education is recognized by the annualInternational Day of Education on January 24. TheUnited Nations declared the year 1970 theInternational Education Year.[90]
Organized institutions play a key role in various aspects of education. Institutions like schools, universities,teacher training institutions, and ministries of education make up the education sector. They interact both with each other and with other stakeholders, such as parents, local communities, religious groups,non-governmental organizations, professionals inhealthcare,law enforcement, media platforms, and political leaders. Many people are directly involved in the education sector, like students, teachers, and school principals as well as school nurses and curriculum developers.[91]
Various aspects of formal education are regulated by thepolicies of governmental institutions. These policies determine at what age children need to attend school and at what times classes are held as well as issues pertaining to the school environment, like infrastructure. Regulations also cover the exact qualifications and requirements that teachers need to fulfill. An important aspect of education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools, colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational goals. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded education, while vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached, and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula, governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and skills are transmitted to the students.[92] Examples of governmental institutions include theMinistry of Education in India,[93] theDepartment of Basic Education in South Africa,[94] and theSecretariat of Public Education in Mexico.[95]
International organizations, such asUNESCO, have wielded significant influence in shaping educational standards and policies worldwide.
Some influential organizations are not intergovernmental, but non-governmental. For example, theInternational Association of Universities promotes collaboration and the exchange of knowledge between colleges and universities around the world, while theInternational Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs.[98] Institutions like theErasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries,[99] while initiatives such as theFulbright Program provide a similar service for teachers.[100]
Factors of educational success
Educational success, also called student and academic achievement, refers to the extent to which educational aims are reached, for example, the amount of knowledge and abilities that students acquire. For practical purposes, it is often measured primarily in terms of official exam scores, but there are many additional indicators, such asattendance rates,graduation rates,dropout rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators like laterincome andincarceration rates.[101] Several factors influence educational achievement, includingpsychological factors, which concern the student as an individual, andsociological factors, which pertain to the student's social environment. Further factors are access toeducational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement. Many of these factors overlap and influence each other.[102]
Psychological
On a psychological level, relevant factors includemotivation,intelligence, and personality.[103] Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning.[104] Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, which often results in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important distinction is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek external rewards like good grades and recognition from peers. Intrinsic motivation tends to be more beneficial by leading to increased creativity and engagement as well as long-term commitment.[105] Educational psychologists try to discover how to increase motivation. This can be achieved, for instance, by encouraging some competition among students while ensuring a balance of positive and negative feedback in the form of praise and criticism.[106]
Intelligence influences how people respond to education. It is a mental quality linked to the ability to learn from experience, to understand, and to employ knowledge and skills to solve problems. Those who have higher scores in intelligence metrics tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education.[107] Intelligence is often primarily associated with the so-calledIQ, a standardized numerical metric for assessing intelligence by focusing on mathematical-logical and verbal skills. However, it has been argued that there are moretypes of intelligence. According to the psychologistHoward Gardner, there are distinct forms of intelligence belonging to fields likemathematics,logic,spatial cognition, language, and music. Further types affect how a person interacts with other people and with themselves. These types of intelligence are largely independent of each other, meaning that someone may excel at one type while scoring low on another.[108]
According to proponents oflearning style theory, the preferred method of acquiring knowledge and skills is another factor. They hold that students with an auditory learning style find it easy to comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, whereas visual learners benefit from information presented visually, such as in diagrams and videos. To facilitate efficient learning, it may be advantageous to incorporate a wide variety of learning modalities.[109] Learning styles have been criticized for ambiguous empirical evidence of student benefits and unreliability of student learning style assessment by teachers.[110] The learner's personality may also influence educational achievement. For instance, characteristics such asconscientiousness andopenness to experience, identified in theBig Five personality traits, are associated with academic success.[111] Other mental factors includeself-efficacy,self-esteem, andmetacognitive abilities.[112]
Sociological
Sociological factors focus not on psychological attributes of learners but on their environment and position in society. They includesocioeconomic status,ethnicity,cultural background, andgender. They are of interest to researchers since they are associated with inequality anddiscrimination. For this reason, they play a key role in policy-making in attempts to mitigate their effects.[113]
Socioeconomic status depends onincome but includes other factors, such asfinancial security,social status,social class, andquality of life attributes. Low socioeconomic status affects educational success in various ways. It is linked to slower cognitive developments in language and memory and higher dropout rates. Poor families may not have enough money to meet basic the nutritional needs of their children, causing poor development. They may also lack the means to invest in educational resources like stimulating toys, books, and computers. Additionally, they may be unable to afford tuition at prestigious schools and are more likely to attend schools in poorer areas. Such schools tend to offer lower standards of teaching because of teacher shortages or because they lack educational materials and facilities, like libraries. Poor parents may also be unable to afford private lessons if their children fall behind. In some cases, students from an economically disadvantaged background are forced to dropout from school to provide income to their families. They also have less access to information on higher education and may face additional difficulties in securing and repayingstudent loans. Low socioeconomic status also has many indirect negative effects by being linked to lower physical andmental health. Due to these factors, social inequalities on the level of the parents are often reproduced in the children.[114]
Ethnic background is linked to cultural differences and language barriers, which make it more difficult for students to adapt to the school environment and follow classes. Additional factors are explicit and implicit biases and discrimination towardethnic minorities. This may affect the students' self-esteem and motivation as well as their access to educational opportunities. For example, teachers may hold stereotypical views even if they are not overtlyracist, which can lead them to grade comparable performances differently based on the child's ethnicity.[115]
Historically, gender has been a central factor in education since the roles of men and women were defined differently in many societies. Education tended to strongly favor men, who were expected to provide for the family. Women, by contrast, were expected to manage the household and rear children, which barred most educational opportunities available to them. While these inequalities have improved in most modern societies, there are stillgender differences in education. Among other things, this concernsbiases andstereotypes linked to the role of gender in education. They affect subjects likescience, technology, engineering, and mathematics, which are often presented as male fields. This discourages female students from following them.[116] In various cases, discrimination based on gender and social factors happens openly as part of official educational policy, such as thesevere restrictions on female education instituted by theTaliban inAfghanistan[117] and theschool segregation of migrants and locals in urban China under thehukou system.[118]
One aspect of many social factors is given by the expectations associated with stereotypes. They work both on an external level, based on how other people react to a person belonging to a certain group, and on an internal level, based on how the person internalizes them and acts accordingly. In this sense, the expectations may turn intoself-fulfilling prophecies by causing the educational outcomes they anticipate. This can happen both for positive and negative stereotypes.[119]
Technology plays another significant role in educational success. Educational technology is commonly associated with the use of modern digital devices, like computers. But understood in the broadest sense, it involves a wide range of resources and tools for learning, including basic aids that do not involve the use of machines, like regular books and worksheets.[120]
Educational technology can benefit learning in various ways. In the form of media, it often takes the role of the primary supplier of information in the classroom. This means that the teacher can focus their time and energy on other tasks, like planning the lesson and guiding students as well as assessing educational performance.[121] Educational technology can also make information easier to understand by presenting it using graphics, audio, and video rather than through mere text. In this regard, interactive elements may be used to make the learning experience more engaging in the form ofeducational games. Technology can be employed to make educational materials accessible to many people, like when using online resources. It additionally facilitates collaboration between students and communication with teachers.[122] The use ofartificial intelligence in education holds various potentials, such as providing new learning experiences to students and assisting teachers in their work, but also poses new risks associated withdata privacy,false information, and manipulation.[123] Various organizations promote student access to educational technologies, such as theOne Laptop per Child initiative, theAfrican Library Project, andPratham.[124]
School infrastructure also influences educational success. It includes physical aspects of the school, like its location and size as well as the available school facilities and equipment. A healthy and safe environment, well-maintained classrooms, and suitable classroom furniture as well as the availability of alibrary and acanteen tend to contribute to educational success.[125] The quality of the teacher also has an important impact on student achievement. Skilled teachers know how to motivate and inspire students and are able to adjust their instructions to the students' abilities and needs. Important in this regard are the teacher's own education and training as well as their past teaching experience.[126] A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al. concludes that, compared to other influences, factors related to the school and the teacher have the biggest impact on educational success.[127]
Parent involvement also boosts achievement and can make children more motivated and invested if they are aware that their parents care about their educational efforts. This tends to lead to increased self-esteem, better attendance rates, and more constructive behavior at school. Parent involvement also includes communication with teachers and other school staff to make other parties aware of current issues and how they may be resolved.[128] Further relevant factors sometimes discussed in the academic literature include historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal aspects.[129]
The main discipline investigating education is called education studies, also referred to as education sciences. It tries to determine how people transmit and acquire knowledge by studying the methods and forms of education. It is interested in its aims, effects, and value as well as the cultural, societal, governmental, and historical contexts that shape education.[131] Education theorists integrate insights from many other fields of inquiry, includingphilosophy, psychology, sociology,economics, history,politics, andinternational relations. Because of these influences, some theorists claim that education studies is not an independent academic discipline likephysics or history since its method and subject are not as clearly defined.[132] Education studies differs from regular training programs, such as teacher training, since its focus on academic analysis and critical reflection goes beyond the skills needed to be a good teacher. It is not restricted to the topic of formal education but examines all forms and aspects of education.[133]
Variousresearch methods are used to study educational phenomena. They roughly divide intoquantitative,qualitative, andmixed-methods approaches. Quantitative research emulates the methods found in thenatural sciences by using precise numerical measurements to gather data from manyobservations and employsstatistical tools to analyze it. It aims to arrive at an objective and impersonal understanding. Qualitative research usually has a much smallersample size and tries to get an in-depth insight into more subjective and personal factors, like how different actors experience the process of education. Mixed-methods research aims to combine data gathered from both approaches to arrive at a balanced and comprehensive understanding. Data can be collected in various ways, like using direct observation ortest scores as well asinterviews andquestionnaires.[134] Some research projects study basic factors affecting all forms of education, while others concentrate on one specific application, look for solutions to concrete problems, or examine the effectiveness of educational projects and policies.[135]
Subfields
Education studies encompasses various subfields likepedagogy,comparative education, and thephilosophy,psychology,sociology,economics, andhistory of education.[136] The philosophy of education is the branch ofapplied philosophy that examines many of the basic assumptions underlying the theory and practice of education. It studies education both as a process and as a discipline while trying to provide exact definitions of its nature and how it differs from other phenomena. It further examines the purpose of education, its different types, and how to conceptualize teachers, students, and their relation.[137] It includes educational ethics, which investigates the moral implications of education; for example, what ethical principles direct it and how teachers should apply them to specific cases. The philosophy of education has a long history and was discussed inancient Greek philosophy.[138]
The term "pedagogy" is sometimes used as a synonym for education studies, but when understood in a more restricted sense, it refers to the subfield interested inteaching methods.[139] It studies how the aims of education, like the transmission of knowledge or fosteringskills andcharacter traits, can be realized.[140] It is interested in the methods and practices used for teaching in regular schools. Some definitions restrict it to this domain, but in a wider sense, it covers all types of education, including forms of teaching outside schools.[141] In this general sense, it explores how teachers can bring about experiences in learners to advance theirunderstanding of the studied topic and how the learning itself takes place.[142]
The psychology of education studies how education happens on the mental level, specifically how new knowledge and skills are acquired as well as how personal growth takes place. It examines what factors influence educational success, how they may differ between individuals, and to what extentnature or nurture is responsible. Influential psychological theories of education arebehaviorism,cognitivism, andconstructivism.[143] Closely related fields are the neurology of education andeducational neuroscience, which are interested in theneuropsychological processes and changes brought about through learning.[144]
The sociology of education is concerned with how education leads to socialization. It examines how social factors andideologies affect what kind of education is available to a person and how successful they are. Closely related questions include how education affects different groups in society and how educational experiences can form someone'spersonal identity. The sociology of education is specifically interested in the causes of inequalities, and its insights are relevant to education policy by trying to identify and mitigate factors that cause inequality.[145] Two influential schools of thought areconsensus theory andconflict theory. Consensus theorists hold that education benefits society as a whole by preparing people for their roles. Conflict theories have a more negative outlook on the resulting inequalities and see education as a force used by theruling class to promote their own agenda.[146]
The economics of education is the field of inquiry studying how education is produced, distributed, and consumed. It tries to determine how resources should be used to improve education, for example, by examining to what extent the quality of teachers is increased by raising their salary. Other questions are how smallerclass sizes affect educational success and how to invest in new educational technologies. This way, the economics of education helps policy-makers decide how to distribute the limited resources most efficiently to benefit society as a whole. It also tries to understand what long-term role education plays for the economy of a country by providing a highly skilled labor force and increasing its competitiveness. A closely related issue concerns the economic advantages and disadvantages of different systems of education.[147]
Comparative education uses tools like theEducation Index to compare educational systems in different countries. Countries with a high score are shown in green, while red indicates a low score.
Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts systems of education. Comparisons can happen from a general perspective or focus on specific factors, like social, political, or economic aspects. Comparative education is often applied to different countries to assess the similarities and differences of theireducational institutions and practices as well as to evaluate the consequences of the distinct approaches. It can be used to learn from other countries which education policies work and how one's own system of education may be improved.[148] This practice is known as policy borrowing and comes with many difficulties since the success of policies can depend to a large degree on the social and cultural context of students and teachers. A closely related and controversial topic concerns the question of whether the educational systems ofdeveloped countries are superior and should be exported toless developed countries.[149] Other key topics are theinternationalization of education and the role of education in transitioning from anauthoritarian regime to a democracy.[150]
The history of education examines the evolution of educational practices, systems, and institutions. It discusses various key processes, their possible causes and effects, and their relations to each other.[151]
Aims and ideologies
Propaganda poster in a primary school in North Korea.Authoritarian regimes often use education to indoctrinate students.[152][153]
A central topic in education studies concerns the question of how people should be educated and what goals should guide this process. Many aims of education have been suggested, such as the acquisition of knowledge and skills as well as personal development and fostering of character traits. Common suggestions encompass features likecuriosity, creativity, rationality, and critical thinking as well as the tendency to think, feel, and act morally. Some scholars focus on liberal values linked tofreedom,autonomy, andopen-mindedness, while others prioritize qualities like obedience to authority, ideological purity,piety, andreligious faith.[154]
Some education theorists focus a single overarching purpose of education and see the more specific aims as means to this end.[155] On a personal level, this purpose is often identified with helping the student lead a good life.[156] On a societal level, education makes people productive members of society.[157] It is controversial whether the primary aim of education is to benefit the educated person or society as a whole.[158]
Educational ideologies are systems of basic philosophical assumptions and principles that can be used to interpret, understand, and evaluate existing educational practicies and policies. They cover various additional issues besides the aims of education, like what topics are learned and how the learning activity is structured. Other themes include the role of the teacher, how educational progress should be assessed, and how institutional frameworks and policies should be structured. There are many ideologies, and they often overlap in various ways. Teacher-centered ideologies place the main emphasis on the teacher's role in transmitting knowledge to students, while student-centered ideologies give a more active role to the students in the process. Process-based ideologies focus on what the processes of teaching and learning should be like and contrast with product-based ideologies, which discuss education from the perspective of the result to be achieved.Conservative ideologies rely on traditional and well-established practices whileProgressive ideologies emphasize innovation and creativity. Further categories arehumanism,romanticism, essentialism,encyclopaedism, andpragmatism as well asauthoritarian anddemocratic ideologies.[159]
Learning theories
Learning theories try to explain how learning happens. Influential theories arebehaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism understands learning as a change in behavior in response to environmental stimuli. This happens by presenting the learner with a stimulus, associating this stimulus with the desired response, and solidifying thisstimulus-response pair. Cognitivism sees learning as a change in cognitive structures and focuses on the mental processes involved in storing, retrieving, and processing information. Constructivism holds that learning is based on the personal experience of each individual and puts more emphasis on social interactions and how they are interpreted by the learner. These theories have important implications for how to teach. For example, behaviorists tend to focus on drills, while cognitivists may advocate the use ofmnemonics, and constructivists tend to employcollaborative learning strategies.[160]
Various theories suggest that learning is more efficient when it is based on personal experience. An additional factor is to aim at a deeper understanding by connecting new to pre-existing knowledge rather than merely memorizing a list of unrelated facts.[161] An influentialdevelopmental theory of learning is proposed by psychologistJean Piaget, who outlines four stages of learning through which children pass on their way to adulthood: the sensorimotor, the pre-operational, the concrete operational, and the formal operational stage. They correspond to different levels of abstraction with early stages focusing more on simple sensory and motor activities, while later stages include more complex internal representations and information processing in the form oflogical reasoning.[162]
Teaching methods
The teaching method concerns the way the content is presented by the teacher, for example, whether group work is used instead of a focus on individual learning. There are many teaching methods available and which one is most efficient in a case depends on factors like the subject matter and the learner's age and competence level.[163] This is reflected in the fact that modern school systems organize students by age, competence, specialization, andnative language into different classes to ensure a productive learning process. Different subjects frequently use different approaches; for instance, language education often focuses on verbal learning, while mathematical education is about abstract and symbolic thinking together withdeductive reasoning.[164] One central requirement for teachingmethodologies is to ensure that the learner remains motivated because of interest and curiosity or through external rewards.[165]
Teaching method also encompasses the use of instructional media used, such as books,worksheets, and audio-visual recordings, and having some form of test or assessment to evaluate the learning progress.Educational assessment is the process of documenting the student's knowledge and skills, which can happen formally or informally and may take place before,during, orafter the learning activity. An important pedagogical aspect in many forms of modern education is that each lesson is part of a larger educational enterprise governed by asyllabus, which often covers several months or years.[166] According toHerbartianism, teaching is divided into phases. The initial phase consists of preparing the student's mind for new information. Next, new ideas are first presented to the learner and then associated with ideas with which the learner is already familiar. In later phases, the understanding shifts to a more general level behind the specific instances, and the ideas are then put into concrete practice.[167]
The history of education studies the processes, methods, and institutions involved in teaching and learning. It tries to explain how they have interacted with each other and shaped educational practice until the present day.[168]
Prehistory
Education inprehistory took place as a form ofenculturation and focused on practical knowledge and skills relevant to everyday concerns, for example, in relation to food, clothing, shelter, and protection. There were no formal schools or specialized teachers, and most adults in the community performed that role and learning happened informally during everyday activities, for example, when children observed andimitated their elders. For theseoral societies,storytelling played a key role in transferring cultural and religious ideas from one generation to the next.[169][e] Beginning with theemergence of agriculture around 9000 BCE, a slow educational change towards more specialization began to occur as people formed larger groups and more complex artisanal and technical skills were needed.[171]
Ancient era
Starting in the 4th millennium BCE and continuing through the following millennia, a major shift in educational practices started to take place with theinvention of writing in regions such asMesopotamia,ancient Egypt, theIndus Valley, andancient China.[172][f] This development had a significant influence on the history of education as a whole. Through writing, it was possible to store, preserve, and communicate information. This facilitated various subsequent developments; for example, the creation of educational tools, like textbooks, and the formation of institutions, like schools.[174]
Plato's Academy is often seen as the first school of higher learning. (Mosaic fromPompeii).
Another key aspect of ancient education was the establishment of formal education. This became necessary since the amount of knowledge grew as civilizations evolved, and informal education proved insufficient to transmit all requisite knowledge between generations. Teachers would act as specialists to impart knowledge, and education became more abstract and further removed from daily life. Formal education was still quite rare in ancient societies and was restricted to the intellectual elites.[175] It covered fields like reading and writing, record keeping, leadership, civic and political life, religion, and technical skills associated with specific professions.[176] Formal education introduced a new way of teaching that gave more emphasis to discipline and drills than the earlier informal modes of education.[177] Two often-discussed achievements of ancient education are the establishment ofPlato's Academy inAncient Greece, which is sometimes considered the first institute of higher learning,[178] and the creation of theGreat Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt as one of the most prestigious libraries of the ancient world.[179]
Many aspects of education in the medieval period were shaped by religious traditions. In Europe, theCatholic Church wielded a significant influence over formal education.[180] In theArab world, the newly founded religion ofIslam spread rapidly and led to various educational developments during theIslamic Golden Age, for example, by integrating classical and religious knowledge and by establishingmadrasa schools.[181] In Jewish communities,yeshivas were established as institutions dedicated to the study of religious texts andJewish law.[182] In China, an expansivestate educational and exam system influenced byConfucian teachings was established.[183] New complex societies began to evolve in other regions, such as Africa, the Americas, Northern Europe, and Japan. Some incorporated preexisting educational practices, while others developed new traditions.[184]
Additionally, this period saw the establishment of various institutes of higher education and research. The first universities in Europe were theUniversity of Bologna, theUniversity of Paris, andOxford University.[185] Other influential centers of higher learning were theAl-Qarawiyyin University in Morocco,[186] theAl-Azhar University in Egypt,[187] and theHouse of Wisdom in Iraq.[188] Another key development was the creation ofguilds, which were associations of skilledcraftsmen and merchants who controlled the practice of their trades. They were responsible for vocational education, and new members had to pass through different stages on their way to masterhood.[189]
Modern era
The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy.
Starting in the early modern period, education in Europe during theRenaissance slowly began to shift from a religious approach towards one which was moresecular. This development was tied to an increased appreciation of the importance of education and a broadened range of topics, including a revived interest in ancient literary texts and educational programs.[190] The turn toward secularization was accelerated during theAge of Enlightenment starting in the 17th century, which emphasized the role of reason and the empirical sciences.[191]European colonization affected education in the Americas throughChristian missionary initiatives.[192] In China, the state educational system was further expanded and focused more on the teachings ofneo-Confucianism.[193] In theIslamic world, the outreach of formal education increased and remained under the influence of religion.[194] A key development in the early modern period was the invention and popularization of theprinting press in the middle of the 15th century, which had a profound impact on general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books, which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination of written documents, including new forms likenewspapers andpamphlets. The increased availability of written media had a major influence on the generalliteracy of the population.[195]
These changes prepared the rise of public education in the 18th and 19th centuries. This period saw the establishment of publicly funded schools with the aim of providing education for all.[g] This contrasts with earlier periods when formal education was primarily provided by private schools, religious institutions, and individual tutors.[198]Aztec civilization was an exception in this regard since formal education was mandatory for the youth regardless of social class as early as the 14th century.[199] Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.[200]
Contemporary era
Initiatives to promote public education anduniversal access to education made significant progress in the 20th and the 21st centuries and were promoted by intergovernmental organizations like the UN. Examples include theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights, theConvention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All initiative, theMillennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals.[201] These efforts resulted in a steady rise of all forms of education but affected primary education in particular. In 1970, 28% of all primary-school-age children worldwide did not attend school; by 2015, this number dropped to 9%.[202]
The establishment of public education was accompanied by the introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as standardized tests to assess the student's progress. Contemporary examples include theTest of English as a Foreign Language, which is a globally used test to assess English language proficiency ofnon-native English speakers, and theProgramme for International Student Assessment, which evaluates education systems worldwide based on how 15-year-old students perform in the fields of reading, mathematics, and science. Similar changes also affected teachers by setting in place institutions and norms to guide and oversee teacher training, like certification requirements for teaching at public schools.[203]
Emerging educational technologies have shaped contemporary education. The widespread availability of computers and the internet dramatically increased access to educational resources and made new types of education possible, such as online education. This was of particular relevance during theCOVID-19 pandemic when schools globally closed for extended periods and many offeredremote learning throughvideo conferencing or pre-recordedvideo lessons to continue instruction.[204] Contemporary education is also shaped by the increased globalization and internationalization of education.[205]
See also
Board of education – Board of directors, board of trustees of a school, local school district, or equivalent
^This implies that its meaning varies depending on the situation in which it is used.
^A thick concept is a concept that includes both descriptive and evaluative content.[12]
^Some theorists only distinguish between formal and informal education.[26]
^In some regions, these two terms have different meanings. In theUnited Kingdom, for example,public schools are run by private institution and charge fees, while state schools are controlled by the government and provide free education.[70]
^Research on prehistoric education often relies on studies of surviving hunting and gathering societies.[170]
^There is no consensus when exactly writing was invented and various forms ofproto-writing have existed for much longer.[173]
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