Archaeological investigation has shown that the nation flourished between the 13th and the 8th centuries BC and was destroyed after a period of decline in the 6th century BC by theBabylonians.[7] After the fall of the kingdom of Edom, the Edomites were pushed westward towards southernJudah by nomadic tribes coming from the east; among them were theNabataeans, who first appeared in the historical annals of the 4th century BC and had already established their own kingdom in what used to be Edom by the first half of the 2nd century BC.[7] More recent excavations show that the process of Edomite settlement in the southern parts of Judah and parts of theNegev down toTimna had started already before the destruction of the kingdom byNebuchadnezzar II in 587/86 BC, both by peaceful penetration and by military means and taking advantage of the already-weakened state of Judah.[8][9]
Once pushed out of their territory, the Edomites settled during thePersian period in an area comprising the southern hills ofJudea down to the area north ofBe'er Sheva.[10][11] The people appear under a Greek form of their old name, asIdumeans orIdumaeans, and their new territory was calledIdumea orIdumaea (Greek: Ἰδουμαία,Idoumaía;Latin:Idūmaea), a term that was used in theHellenistic andRoman periods, also mentioned in theNew Testament.[12][13] During the 2nd century BC, the Edomites were forcibly converted toJudaism by theHasmoneans and were incorporated into theJewish population.[14] Other scholars believe that the assimilation was voluntary.[15]
Edom andIdumea are two related but distinct terms; they relate to a historically-contiguous population but to two separate, if adjacent, territories which the Edomites/Idumeans occupied in different periods of their history. The Edomites first established a kingdom ("Edom") in the southern area of modern-dayJordan and later migrated into the southern parts of the Kingdom of Judah ("Idumea", modern-dayMount Hebron)[dubious –discuss] when Judah was first weakened and then destroyed by the Babylonians in the 6th century BC.[16][17]
TheHebrew wordEdom means "red", and the Hebrew Bible relates it to the name of its founderEsau, the elder son of the Hebrew patriarchIsaac, because he was born "red all over".[18] As a young adult, he sold his birthright to his brotherJacob for a portion of "red pottage".[19] TheTanakh describes the Edomites as descendants of Esau.[20]
The Edomites may have been connected with theShasu andShutu, nomadic raiders mentioned inEgyptian sources. Indeed, a letter from an Egyptian scribe at a border fortress in theWadi Tumilat during the reign ofMerneptah reports movement of nomadic "shasu-tribes of Edom" to watering holes in Egyptian territory.[21] The earliest Iron Age settlements—possibly copper mining camps—date to the 11th century BC.[22] Settlement intensified by the late 8th century BC, and the main sites so far excavated have been dated between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. The last unambiguous reference to Edom is anAssyrian inscription of 667 BC. Edom ceased to exist as a state when it was conquered byNabonidus in the 6th century BC.[23]
Edom is mentioned in Assyriancuneiform inscriptions in the form𒌑𒁺𒈪Údumi and𒌑𒁺𒈬Údumu;[4] three of its kings are known from the same source:Kaus-malaka at the time ofTiglath-pileser III (c. 745 BC),Aya-ramu at the time ofSennacherib (c. 705 BC), andKaus-gabri at the time ofEsarhaddon (c. 680 BC). According to the Egyptian inscriptions, the "Aduma" at times extended their possessions to the borders of Egypt.[24]
The existence of the Kingdom of Edom was asserted by archaeologists led by Ezra Ben-Yosef and Tom Levy, by using a methodology called thepunctuated equilibrium model in 2019. Archaeologists mainly took copper samples fromTimna Valley andFaynan in Jordan’sArava valley dated to 1300-800 BC. According to the results of the analysis, the researchers thought that PharaohShoshenk I of Egypt (the Biblical "Shishak"), who attackedJerusalem in the 10th century BC, encouraged the trade and production of copper instead of destroying the region. Tel Aviv University professor Ben Yosef stated "Our new findings contradict the view of many archaeologists that the Arava was populated by a loose alliance of tribes, and they’re consistent with the biblical story that there was an Edomite kingdom here."[25][26][27]
After the conquest of Judah by the Babylonians, Edomites settled in the region ofHebron. They prospered in this new country, called by the Greeks and Romans "Idumaea" or "Idumea", for more than four centuries.[28]Strabo, writing around the time ofJesus, held that the Idumaeans, whom he identified as ofNabataean origin, constituted the majority of the population of westernJudea, where they commingled with the Judaeans and adopted their customs,[29] a view not necessarily shared by modern scholarly works.[30][31][32][33]
Map showing kingdom of Edom (in red) at its largest extent, c. 600 BC. Areas in dark red show the approximate boundary of classical-age Idumaea.
The Edomites' original country, according to the Hebrew Bible, stretched from theSinai Peninsula as far asKadesh Barnea. It reached as far south asEilat, the seaport of Edom.[34] On the north of Edom was the territory ofMoab.[35]
The Limestone waterfall of the Zered, now called theWadi al-Hasa
The boundary between Moab and Edom was the Zered, now calledWadi al-Hasa.[36] The ancient capital of Edom was Bozrah, nowBusaira, Jordan.[37] According to theBook of Genesis, Esau's descendants settled in the land after they had displaced theHorites.[38] It was also called the land of Seir;Mount Seir appears to have been strongly identified with them and may have been a cultic site. According to biblical narrative, at the time ofKing Amaziah of Judah (838 BC),Selah was its principal stronghold,[39] Eilat andEzion-Geber its seaports.[40]
Busaira, Jordan archaeological site, the former capital Bozra of Edom
Genesis 36:31-43 lists thekings of Edom "before any Israelite king reigned":
These are the kings who reigned in the land of Edom before any king reigned over the Israelites.
Bela son of Beor reigned in Edom, and the name of his city wasDinhabah. When Bela died,Jobab son of Zerah, from Bozrah, succeeded him as king. When Jobab died,Husham of the land of theTemanites succeeded him as king. When Husham died,Hadad son of Bedad, who defeated theMidianites in the country of Moab, succeeded him as king; the name of his city wasAvith. When Hadad died,Samlah of Masrekah succeeded him as king. When Samlah died,Saul of Rehoboth-on-the-river succeeded him as king. When Saul died,Baal-hanan son ofAchbor succeeded him as king. And when Baal-hanan son of Achbor died, Hadar succeeded him as king; the name of his city wasPau, and his wife’s name was Mehetabel daughter of Matred daughter of Me-zahab.
These are the names of the clans of Esau, each with its families and locality, name by name: the clansTimnah,Alvah,Jetheth,Aholibamah,Elah,Pinon,Kenaz, Teman,Mibzar,Magdiel, andIram. Those are the clans of Edom—that is, of Esau, father of the Edomites—by their settlements in the land which they hold.[41]
The Hebrew word translated as leader of a clan isaluf, used solely to describe the dukes of Edom andMoab in theTorah. However, beginning in the books of the later prophets, the word is used to describe Judean generals; for example, in the prophecies of theBook of Zechariah twice (9:7, 12:5–6), it had evolved to describe Jewish captains. The word is also used multiple times as a general term for teacher or guide, for example, inPsalm 55:13.
If the account may be taken at face value, the kingship of Edom was, at least in early times, nothereditary,[42] perhapselective.[43] Thefirst book of Chronicles mentions both a king andchieftains.[44]Moses and theIsraelite people twice appealed to their common ancestry and asked the king of Edom for passage through his land, along the "King's Highway", on their way toCanaan, but the king refused permission.[45] Accordingly, they detoured around the country because of his show of force[46] or because God ordered them to do so rather than wage war (Deuteronomy 2:4–6). The king of Edom did not attack the Israelites, though he prepared to resist aggression.
Nothing further is recorded of the Edomites in the Tanakh until their defeat by KingSaul of Israel in the late 11th century BC (1 Samuel 14:47). Forty years later KingDavid and his generalJoab defeated the Edomites in the "Valley of Salt" (probably near theDead Sea;2 Samuel 8:13–14;1 Kings 9:15–16). An Edomite prince namedHadad escaped and fled to Egypt, and after David's death he returned and tried to start a rebellion but failed and went to Syria (Aramea).[47] From that time Edom remained avassal of Israel. David placed over the Edomites Israelite governors or prefects,[48] and this form of government seems to have continued underSolomon. When Israel divided into two kingdoms Edom became a dependency of theKingdom of Judah. In the time ofJehoshaphat (c. 870 – 849 BC) the Tanakh mentions a king of Edom[49] who was probably an Israelite deputy appointed by theKing of Judah. It also states that the inhabitants of Mount Seir invaded Judea in conjunction with Ammon and Moab, and that the invaders turned against one another and were all destroyed (2 Chronicles 20:10–23). Edom revolted againstJehoram and elected a king of its own (2 Kings 8:20–22;2 Chronicles 21:8).Amaziah attacked and defeated the Edomites, seizing Selah, but the Israelites never subdued Edom completely (2 Kings 14:7;2 Chronicles 25:11–12).
In the time ofNebuchadnezzar II the Edomites may have helpedplunder Jerusalem and slaughter the Judaeans in 587 or 586 BCE (Psalms 137:7;Obadiah 1:11–14). Some believe that it is for this reason the prophets denounced Edom (Isaiah 34:5–8;Jeremiah 49:7–22;Obadiahpassim). Evidence also suggests that at that time Edom may have engaged in a treaty betrayal of Judah.[50] The people of Edom would be dealt with during the Messiah's rulership, according to the prophets.[51] Despite this, many Edomites peacefully migrated to southern Judea, which continued even during the reign ofNabonidus.[52]Regarding the territory of Edom, thebook of Jeremiah states that "no one will live there, nor will anyone of mankind reside in it".[53]
Although the Idumaeans controlled the lands to the east and south of the Dead Sea, their peoples were held in contempt by the Israelites. Hence theBook of Psalms says "Moab is my washpot: over Edom will I cast out my shoe".[54] According to theTorah,[55] the congregation could not receive descendants of a marriage between an Israelite and an Edomite until the fourth generation. This law was a subject of controversy betweenShimon ben Yohai, who said it applied only to male descendants, and otherTannaim, who said female descendants were also excluded[56] for four generations. From these, some early conversion laws inhalacha were derived.
Compared to the neighboring Moabites and Ammonites, the name "Edom" completely disappeared from the area east ofArabah. TheQedarites controlled the territory, followed by the Nabateans, thus ensuring the end of Iron Age Edom.[52] According toostraca from sites in Idumaea, i.e. southern Judah after the fall of the kingdom to the Babylonians, dating mainly to the 4th century BCE, a diverse population of Arabs, Edomites as well asJudeans andPhoenicians inhabited the area during the latePersian period.[57]Strabo identifies Idumeans with the Nabateans who were expelled to southern Judea after committing sedition. However, there is evidence for cultural continuity between the Iron Age Edom and Idumea, based on settlement patterns and religious practices[clarification needed].[52]
During theHellenistic period, both Jews and Idumeans spoke Aramaic and used it for literary and legal documents.[58] An Idumean marriage contract from Maresha, dating from 176 BCE, closely resembles theketubbot used by Jews.[59][58] However, despite these cultural similarities, some Jews maintained a distinct boundary between themselves and the Idumeans. This is evident inBen Sira 50:25–26, which expresses disdain for three "nations," including "the inhabitants of Se'ir", referring to the Edomites/Idumeans.[58]
During the revolt of theMaccabees against theSeleucid kingdom (early 2nd century BC),II Maccabees refers to a Seleucid general namedGorgias as "Governor of Idumaea"; whether he was a Greek or a Hellenized Idumean is unknown. Some scholars maintain that the reference to Idumaea in that passage is an error altogether.[citation needed]
Hyrcanus also captured the Idumean cities ofAdora andMarisa and after subduing all the Idumeans, permitted them to remain in their country as long as they had themselves circumcised and were willing to observe the laws of the Jews. And so, out of attachment to the land of their fathers, they submitted tocircumcision and to make their manner of life conform in all other respects to that of the Jews. And from that time onward they have continued to be Jews.[64]
However, since the late 1980s, scholars have increasingly questioned the traditional account of Idumaea's conquest and forced conversion by theHasmoneans. Several reasons have been proposed for this skepticism.[nb 1] As a result, historians have toned down the Hasmonean history of Idumaea as recounted by Josephus in several ways:
(a) Traditional account: Some historians still maintain that the events happened largely as Josephus describes.[83][84][85]
(b) Moderated Conquest: This view was first moderated by the assumption that only Maresha and Adoraim, located on Idumaea's northern border, were actually conquered, while other Idumeans voluntarily aligned themselves with the Judeans. The reports of forced conversions, in this view, are either anti-Hasmonean propaganda[86] or, conversely, Hasmonean propaganda,[87] which Josephus (mistakenly) incorporated into his historical work.
(c) Fictional Conquest: Atkinson takes this further by considering the entire account of the conquest to be fictional.[88] He also believes that "many Idumeans [...] never fully embraced Judaism."[89]
(d) No Annexation: However, while Atkinson still maintains that archaeology suggests "the region south of Judea [including Maresha] was annexed without any significant conflict,"[90] Berlin and Kosmin now argue that even the annexation of Idumea and the Idumeans into the Judean state is fictional, noting that, as corroborated by archaeology, after most Idumaeans left Idumaea, Judeans didnot settle in this abandoned area.[91] In line with this interpretation, it is now often assumed that Idumaea was not annexed by the Hasmoneans at all. Instead, the remaining Idumeans may have entered into an alliance with the Judeans, within which the Idumaean religion could continue to be practiced.[92][93][94]
This reinterpretation leaves the prior depopulation of Idumaea[68][69][70] as an open question, comparable to the simultaneous depopulation ofGalilee andPhilistia.
Antipater the Idumaean, the progenitor of theHerodian dynasty along with Judean progenitors that ruledJudea after the Roman conquest, was of Idumean origin.[95] UnderHerod the Great, the Idumaea province was ruled for him by a series of governors, among whom were his brother Joseph ben Antipater and his brother-in-lawCostobarus.
Overall, Herodian influence on Judea, Jerusalem and theTemple was significant. However, this was obsfucated by later variants ofSecond Temple Judaism andRabbinic Judaism .[96] For example, a minority of contemporary Jews argued Herod could not be Jewish because of his genealogical origins. These beliefs were promoted by works such asJubilees and4QMMT, which were ofEssene,Hasidean orSadducee origin.[97][98] These Jews did not openly express their views because Herod violently suppressed critics.[99] Evie Gassner believed the sages disparaged Herod because he supported the Sadducees, who opposed thePharisees.[100]
By 66 CE, during theFirst Jewish–Roman War, theZealot leaderSimon bar Giora attacked the Jewish converts of Upper Idumaea and brought near complete destruction to the surrounding villages and countryside in that region.[101] It was part of his wider plan to attack Jerusalem and seize authority for himself.[102] According to Josephus, during thesiege of Jerusalem in 70 CE byTitus, 20,000 Idumaeans, under the leadership of John, Simon, Phinehas, and Jacob, joined the Zealots as theybesieged the Temple.[103] Idumean zealotry arguably reflected their attempts to 'prove' their Jewishness.[99] After theJewish–Roman wars, the Idumaean people disappear from written history, though the geographical region of "Idumea" is still referred to at the time ofJerome.[43]
Josephus, when referring to Upper Idumaea, speaks of towns and villages immediately to the south and south-west of Jerusalem,[104] such asHebron (Antiq. 12.8.6,Wars 4.9.7),Halhul, in Greek called Alurus (Wars 4.9.6),Bethsura (Antiq. 12.9.4),Begabris (Wars 4.8.1.),[105]Dura (Adorayim) (Antiq. 13.9.1,Wars 1.2.5),Caphethra (Wars 4.9.9),Bethletephon (Wars 4.8.1),Teqoa (Wars 4.9.5), andMarissa (Antiq. 13.9.1,Wars 1.2.5), the latter being a principal city of Idumaea after the influx of Idumaeans into the Hebron Hills, shortly after the demise of thekingdom of Judah and theJudean exile in the 6th-century BC.[16] Strabo describes western Judea as being populated by Idumeans, who commingled with Judeans and adopted their customs.[106]
The nature of Edomite religion is largely unknown before their conversion to Judaism by the Hasmoneans. Epigraphical evidence suggests that the national god of Edom wasQaus (קוס) (also known as 'Qaush', 'Kaush', 'Kaus', 'Kos' or 'Qaws'), since Qaus is invoked in the blessing formula in letters and appear in personal names found in ancient Edom.[110] As close relatives of otherLevantine Semites andArabs, they seem to have worshiped such gods asEl,Baal and'Uzza.[14][111] In some Jewish tradition stemming from the Talmud, the descendants of Esau are the Romans (and to a larger extent, all Europeans).[112][113][114]
Juan Manuel Tebes argues that Qaus is a similar god toYahweh. Qaus seems to have descended from a cultural heritage common between Edomites and Jews, with the worship of both the Edomite Qaus and the God of the Israelites being described by Egyptians. Qaus's popularity during the Persian and Hellenistic periods appears, according to Tebes, to have forced the purportedly pro-Yahwist authors of theBook of Chronicles to portray several Edomite persons as 'piousLevites'. Clues about their Edomite heritage appear to be hidden in their theophoric names.[115]
Josephus states that Costobarus was descended from the priests of "the Koze, whom the Idumeans had formerly served as a god".[116] Victor Sasson describes an Edomite text that parallels theBook of Job, which provides insight on the language, literature, and religion of Edom.[117]
Khirbat en-Nahas is a large-scale copper-mining site excavated by archaeologist Thomas Levy in what is now southern Jordan. The scale of mining on the site is regarded as evidence of a strong, centralized 10th century BC Edomite kingdom.[118]
WhileStrabo also reports that the Idumeans "joined the Judeans and shared in the same customs with them,"[65] he makes no mention of coercion, which was generally rare in antiquity.[citation needed]
The Idumeans most probably did already practice circumcision, like most Arab peoples, a fact that has been corroborated archaeologically through the discovery of circumcised stone phalli excavated at Maresha.[66][citation needed]
Recent archaeological findings have revealed thatMikvaot (ritual baths), long considered evidence that the Idumeans indeed adopted Jewish customs after conversion, were actually used by the Idumeans even earlier than by the Judeans. This suggests that, rather than the Idumeans adopting Jewish laws, the influence may have flowed in the opposite direction. Additionally, other practices, such as the use of ritually purified vessels, specific burial customs,pork avoidance, and culticaniconism further support this idea.[66][52][67][citation needed]
Excavations indicate that nearly all Idumaean settlements were not conquered, nor did the Idumeans remain in their land "out of attachment for it," as Josephus claims. Instead, nearly all Idumaean sites were abandoned during the Hasmonean period, mostly without evidence of conflict.[68][69][70][71]
Both archaeological and historical evidence – namely, Josephus' report of an Idumaean namedCostobarus, from a family of Qos priests, whom Herod appointed as governor of Idumaea and Philistia, but who purportedly rebelled against Herod by promoting the Qos faith, and the presence of a Herodian Qos sanctuary in Mamre – suggest that the Idumeans were not fully integrated into Judaism even after the Hasmonean era, but that the Idumeans who repopulated Idumaea after the Hasmonean period continued to practice the Idumean religion.[73][74][75][76][77]
Furthermore, the parallel account of the conquest and forced conversion of the Itureans is now widely considered fictional,[78][79][80] with even clearer archaeological evidence than in the case of Idumaea.[81] Similarly, in other regions, where Josephus reports a conquest without conversion, archaeology also fails to support Josephus's narrative.[82]
^Wöhrle, Jakob (2019)."Edom / Edomiter".WiBiLex. Retrieved26 September 2024.
^abcNegev, Avraham; Gibson, Shimon (2001)."Edom; Edomites".Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land (Revised and updated ed.). New York / London: Continuum. pp. 149–150.
^abLepinski, Nadav (n.d.). "Tell Maresha". In Ben-Yosef, Sefi (ed.).Israel Guide - Judaea (A useful encyclopedia for the knowledge of the country) (in Hebrew). Vol. 9. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, in affiliation with the Israel Ministry of Defence. p. 325.OCLC745203905.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
^Kloner, Amos; Stern, Ian (2007). "Idumea in the Late Persian Period (Fourth Century B.C.E.)". InLipschits, Oded;Knoppers, Gary N.; Albertz, Rainer (eds.).Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century B.C.E. Penn State University Press. pp. 139–143.ISBN9781575065809.
^Ammonius,De Adfinium Vocabulorum Differentiae 243, possibly quoting Ptolemy: "Jews and Idumaeans differ, as Ptolemy states [...]. The Idumaeans, on the other hand, were not originally Jews, but Phoenicians and Syrians; having been subjugated by the Jews and having been forced to undergo circumcision, so as to be counted among the Jewish nation and keep the same customs, they were called Jews."
^Stern, Ian (2022)."The Evolution of an Edomite Idumean Identity. Hellenistic Period Maresha as a Case Study". In Hensel, Benedikt; Ben Zvi, Ehud; Edelman, Diana V. (eds.).About Edom and Idumea in the Persian Period. Recent Research and Approaches from Archaeology, Hebrew Bible Studies and Ancient Near Eastern Studies. Sheffield / Bristol: Equinox. pp. 12–13. Paginazion according to linked Open Access version.
^abItzhaq Beit-Arieh, Liora Freud (2015).Tel Malḥata. A Central City in the Biblical Negev. Volume I. Eisenbrauns. pp. 17 f.
^Exceptions:Khirbet er-Rasm, possibly Maresha andLachish (where, however, at least Josephus's chronology is incorrect according to Finkielsztejn); all at Idumaea's northern border. Probably notArad (in the south): Both Faust (followed by van Maaren), who suggests a Hasmonean conquest of Stratum IV, and Shatzman, who speculates that the unfinished construction project started in Stratum IV could have been a Hasmonean endeavor, fail to take into account Herzog's latest excavation report, which attributes the destruction of the 3rd century Stratum IV to an earthquake, as suggested by the damaged water systems here and in the surrounding area. Cf.Finkielsztejn, Gerald (1998)."More Evidence on John Hyrcanus I's Conquests: Lead Weights and Rhodian Amphora Stamps".Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society.16:47–48.;Faust, Avraham; Ehrlich, Adi (2011).The Excavations of Khirbet er-Rasm, Israel. The changing faces of the countryside. Oxford: BAR Publishing. pp. 251–252.;van Maaren, John (2022).The Boundaries of Jewishness in the Southern Levant, 200 BCE–132 CE. Power, Strategies, and Ethnic Configurations. Berlin / Boston: de Gruyter. p. 115.ISBN978-3-11-078745-0.;Shatzman, Israel (1991).The Armies of the Hasmonaeans and Herod. From Hellenistic to Roman Frameworks. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr. pp. 55–56.;Herzog, Ze'ev (2002). "The Fortress Mound at Tel Arad: An Interim Report".Tel Aviv.29 (1):12–13, 76.doi:10.1179/tav.2002.2002.1.3.
^Magen, Y. (2003). "Mamre. A Cultic Site from the Reign of Herod". In Bottini, G. C.; Disegni, L.; Chrupcala, L. D. (eds.).One Land – Many Cultures. Archaeological Studies in Honour of St. Loffreda OFM. Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press. pp. 245–257.
^Vlastimil Drbal (2017). "Pilgrimage and multi-religious worship. Palestinian Mamre in Late Antiquity". In Troels M. Kristensen, Wiebke Friese (ed.).Excavating Pilgrimage. Archaeological Approaches to Sacred Travel and Movement in the Ancient World. Routledge. pp. 250 f.,255–257.
^Schiffman, Lawrence H.,Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: their True Meaning for Judaism and Christianity, Anchor Bible Reference Library (Doubleday) 1995.
^Marciak, Michael (2017). "Idumea and the Idumeans in Josephus' Story of Hellenistic-Early Roman Palestine (Ant. XII-XX)".Aevum.91 (1). Vita e Pensiero:171–193.JSTOR26477573.
^Victor Sasson (2006). "An Edomite Joban Text, with a Biblical Joban Parallel".Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft.117 (4).doi:10.1515/zatw.2006.117.4.601.S2CID170594788.
