J. R. R. Tolkien decided to increase the reader's feeling that the story in his 1954–55 bookThe Lord of the Rings was real, by framing the main text with an elaborate editorial apparatus that extends and comments upon it. This material, mainly in the book's appendices, effectively includes a fictional editorial figure much like himself who is interested inphilology, and who says he is translating amanuscript which has somehow come into his hands, having somehow survived the thousands of years since theThird Age. He called the book a heroic romance, giving ita medieval feeling, and describing its time-frame as the remote past. Among the steps he took to make its setting,Middle-earth, believable were to develop itsgeography,history,peoples,genealogies, and unseen background (later published asThe Silmarillion) in great detail, complete with editorial commentary in each case.

Tolkien considered giving his legendarium, including the characterElendil, an external framein the form of a time travel novel. A character whose name, like Elendil's, means "Elf-friend", was to visit different historic periods, arriving at last inNúmenor; but he never completed such a novel, despite two attempts.

The book was given a genuine editorial frame after Tolkien's death by his sonChristopher Tolkien, who successively publishedThe Silmarillion.Unfinished Tales, and eventually the 12 volumes ofThe History of Middle-earth. That set includes 4 volumes ofThe History of The Lord of the Rings. Christopher Tolkien provided detailed editorial commentary on the development of the stories of the whole legendarium and ofThe Lord of the Rings as a mass of contradictory drafts in manuscript.

Peter Jackson'sLord of the Rings film trilogy reframed the work as the tale of a dangerous adventure, omitting characters likeTom Bombadil and chapters like "The Scouring of the Shire" which deviated from Jackson's primary narrative, the quest to destroy theOne Ring. The films attracted an enormous new audience, familiar with other media such as video games. Together, fans, game authors, and fantasy artistscreated a large body of work in many media, including a mass of fan fiction, novels, fan films, and artwork.Tolkien's impact on fantasy, principally through this one book, has been enormous;fantasy novelists have had the choice of either imitating Tolkien or of reacting against him.Scholars too turned their attention to book and films. These diverse contributions in many media provide a new, much wider context that frames and comments uponThe Lord of the Rings.

Scholars including Vladimir Brljak have remarked Tolkien's construction of an editorial frame within the book. Brljak argues that this framework, with its pseudo-editorial, pseudo-philological, andpseudo-translational aspects, "is both the cornerstone and crowning achievement of Tolkien's mature literary work".^[1]

J. R. R. Tolkien was an English author andphilologist of ancientGermanic languages, specialising inOld English; he spent much of his career as a professor at theUniversity of Oxford.^[2] He is best known for his novels about his inventedMiddle-earth,The Hobbit andThe Lord of the Rings, and for the posthumously publishedThe Silmarillion which provides a more mythical narrative about earlier ages. A devoutRoman Catholic, he describedThe Lord of the Rings as "a fundamentally religious and Catholic work",rich in Christian symbolism.^{[T 1]}

Aframe story is a tale that encloses or frames the main story or set of stories. For example, inMary Shelley's 1818 novelFrankenstein, the main story is framed by a fictional correspondence between an explorer and his sister, so as to present the story as if it were real.^[3]

Tolkien used frame stories in his Middle-earth writings to make the worksresemble a genuine mythology, accumulated over a long period of time. He described in detail how his fictional charactersBilbo andFrodo Baggins wrote their memoirs and transmitted them to others, and showed how later in-universe editors annotated the material. InThe Lord of the Rings, the characters directly discuss the story, i.e. Tolkien has embedded the narrative's frame story in the narrative.^[4]

Tolkien accompanied the embedded frame story with afound manuscript conceit, pretending that he had had the luck to come across an ancient manuscript of theRed Book of Westmarch which had somehow survived over the thousands of years since the end of theThird Age. With this device, Tolkien could put a figure of himself inside the book, appearing as the voice of a philological editor and translator making comments in the appendices. In Appendix F II "On Translation", this figure explains how and why he has approached the task of making the ancient text intelligible to the modern reader.^[5]

The scholar of literatureAllan Turner comments that elements of the frame story function at multiple levels; in particular,metatextual elements like the appendices "[treat] the world of the story as historical fact, at the same time [creating] for the reader the illusion of a direct link through time and space with his/her own world through the persona of the 'editor'".^[5] For example:

All of this paints a picture of the author as editor and(pseudo-)translator, the text as a survival through long ages, and the events depicted as historical:^[4][6] In his introduction toUnfinished Tales,Christopher Tolkien described his father's imagined role as the "persona ... of the translator and redactor".^{[T 3]} He made a similar point about the legendarium in his foreword toThe Silmarillion: "my father came to conceive the Silmarillion as a compilation ... made long afterwards ..."^{[T 4]} In a letter sent while he was writingThe Lord of the Rings, Tolkien wrote "I always had the sense of recording what was already 'there' somewhere: not of inventing."^{[T 5]}

Catherine Butler comments that this was "congenial work" which "suited the philological Tolkien with his many medieval documents".^[7] One aspect of that congeniality is that it allowed documents to be inconsistent with each other: different editors had different opinions, and tales could be told from many points of view. A major instance that troubled Tolkien was inThe Hobbit, where Bilbo claimed in the first edition (1937) that Gollum had freely given him the ring. Seen fromThe Lord of the Rings, where the ring had become theOne Ring,so powerful as to corrupt anyone who wore it for any substantial length of time, Bilbo's claim was clearly a lie: Gollum was totally addicted to the One Ring, and quite unable to give it up. Tolkien altered the second edition (1951) ofThe Hobbit so as to be more consistent with the forthcomingThe Lord of the Rings, but that meant that there were conflicting versions in the two editions. But once Tolkien realized there could be inconsistent versions of Bilbo's claim, he could say simply that Bilbo lied so as to reinforce his claim on the item, making himself more comfortable psychologically.^[7]

The Lord of the Rings has a complex structure,with many elements in antiquarian style besides the main text. These form a frame which expands upon the text, comments upon it, and helps to make it convincingly realistic.^[5][1] Among these elements, Thomas Kullmann writes that the prologue "obviously imitates the non-fictional prose of nineteenth- and early twentieth-centuryethnography" with its discussion of how "Hobbits are an unobtrusive but very ancient people..." and details of their habitual activities.^[8] Further, the "Notes on Shire Records" imitate "works ofhistoriography", while the appendices offer tables of what look like "historic data and linguistic notes."^[8]

Tolkien commented on thismetatextual process in one of his letters, writing that "It is, I suppose, fundamentally concerned with the problem of the relation of Art (andsub-creation) and Primary Reality".^{[T 6]}

• 
  The Lord of the Rings as a framed text^[1][4][6][8]

Vladimir Brljak notes Tolkien's praise ofBeowulf in his lecture "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics", and cites Shippey's comment that Tolkien "felt a virtual identity of motive and of technique" with theBeowulf poet. That affinity, he writes, extended to creating animpression of depth, giving the feeling of "unattainable vistas" stretching back into the past. It also meant intentionally creating the feeling of receiving "an echo of an echo" (as Tolkien said in his lecture) by creating "an intricate metafictional structure". Brljak argues that this framework "is both the cornerstone and crowning achievement of Tolkien's mature literary work", and that the pseudo-editorial, pseudo-philological, and pseudo-translational apparatus contributes greatly to the effect.^[1]

The Lord of the Rings was preceded in Tolkien's writings bytwo unfinished time-travel novels,The Lost Road, begun in 1936–37,^[9] andThe Notion Club Papers, begunc. 1945.[10]^[11] Both texts make use of variants of the characterÆlfwine to provide a frame story for the time travel. Further, his name, and that of other incarnations of the same character, means "Elf-friend", tying him toElendil in Tolkien's legendarium. Indeed, the time travellers successively approachNúmenor, making the novels into frames for the legendarium itself.^[12][13][14]Verlyn Flieger comments that had eitherThe Lost Road orThe Notion Club Papers been finished,^[11]

We would have had a dream of time-travel through actual history and recorded myth which would have functioned as both introduction and epilogue to Tolkien's own invented mythology. The result would have been time-travel not on the scale of ordinary science fiction but of epic, a dream of myth and history and fiction interlocking as Tolkien wanted them to, as they might well once have done.^[11]

WhenThe Lord of the Rings was first published in the 1950s, Tolkien as the book's author was the only person who had actually edited the many drafts of the text or commented upon them, let alone ofthe large legendarium which lay behind the text and supplied the material for its impression of depth, its pseudo-historical frame. This changed after his death in 1973, when his sonChristopher Tolkien redacted the legendarium to create a much shorter version of it,The Silmarillion. That led to the publication of further stories, starting with the 1980Unfinished Tales, and eventually to the 12 volumes ofThe History of Middle-earth. That set includes 4 volumes ofThe History of The Lord of the Rings. Christopher Tolkien provided detailed editorial commentary on the development of the stories of the whole legendarium, the Silmarillion writ large, and ofThe Lord of the Rings as a mass of contradictory drafts in manuscript.^[16][17]

In 1984, Christopher Tolkien, reflecting on his construction of the published text ofThe Silmarillion, wrote the following note, regretting that he had not provided it with a "framework ... within the imagined world" explaining how it might have come into existence in Middle-earth and survived to become the book that the reader sees:^{[T 7]}

by its posthumous publication nearly a quarter of a century later the natural order of presentation of the whole 'Matter of Middle-earth' was inverted; and it is certainly debatable whether it was wise to publish in 1977 a version of the primary 'legendarium' standing on its own and claiming, as it were, to be self-explanatory. The published work has no 'framework', no suggestion of what it is and how (within the imagined world) it came to be. This I now think to have been an error.^{[T 7]}

The scholarGergely Nagy observes that Tolkien "thought of his worksas texts within the fictional world" (his emphasis), and that the overlapping of different and sometimes contradictory accounts was central to his desired effect. Nagy notes that Tolkien went so far as to create facsimile pages from the Dwarves'Book of Mazarbul that is found by theFellowship inMoria.^[18] Further, Tolkien was aphilologist; Nagy comments that Tolkien may have been intentionally imitating the philological style ofElias Lönnrot, compiler of the Finnish epic, theKalevala; or ofSt Jerome,Snorri Sturlusson,Jacob Grimm, orNikolai Grundtvig, all of whom Tolkien saw as exemplars of a professional and creative philology.^[18] This was, Nagy believes, what Tolkien thought essential if he was to presenta mythology for England, since such a thing had to have been written by many hands.^[18] Further, writes Nagy, Christopher Tolkien "inserted himself in the functional place of Bilbo" as editor and collator, in his view "reinforcing themythopoeic effect" that his father had wanted to achieve, making the published book do what Bilbo's book was meant to do, and so unintentionally realising his father's intention.^[18] Tolkien's Middle-earth writings had become, in reality and no longer only in fiction, a complex work by different hands edited, annotated, and commented upon over a long period.^[18]

• 
  Christopher Tolkien's editorial framing of the 12 volumes ofThe History of Middle-earth presentshis father's legendarium, and the books derived from it, as a set of historic texts, analogous to the presentation of genuine scholarly works likeThe Monsters and The Critics; and it creates anarrative voice throughout the series, a figure of Christopher Tolkien himself.^[19]

In 2001–2003,Peter Jackson'sLord of the Rings film trilogy appeared on cinema screens.^[20] Jackson took great care to create a visually-convincing Middle-earth setting, with admired cinematography, sets, miniatures, costumes, prosthetics, weapons and armour made byWētā Workshop, and the CGI creation of the monsterGollum. All this attracted much critical admiration.^[21] The film's production design was based on the artwork of the leadingTolkien artistsJohn Howe andAlan Lee, who were employed for long periods in New Zealand to supportthe production of the films.Howard Shore'smusic for the series, too, was widely praised.^[22] The result was to make the films look familiar, and indeed in Kristin Thompson's words "readers ... often claimed that the film had captured their own mental images of Middle-earth".^[23][24]

Jackson, with a background in horror films, and the need to attract a large audience, necessarily cut the story down to fit the viewing time of three films. He chose to focus on the story as a dangerous adventure, omitting characters such asTom Bombadil who did not forward the narrative, and chapters such as "The Scouring of the Shire" which deviate from Jackson's primary narrative, the quest to destroy theOne Ring.^[22][25]

The films were extremely successful commercially, attracting both existing Tolkien readers and creating a new, younger audience familiar with other media such asvideo games.Tolkien scholars were divided intheir opinions of the films. A few felt that the spirit of the book had been lost, the text eviscerated.^[26] Some noted that characters had been flattened out into basic types or caricatures.^[27] Others felt that the book's qualities had been preserved by appropriate substitution of cinematic techniques for Tolkien's prose.^[28] And some, along with many fans, saw the films as representing the book well.^[29]

The Lord of the Rings, both as a book and as a film series, has inspired the creation ofa large number of works in many media.Tolkien's impact on fantasy, principally through this one book, has been enormous. It unquestionably created "fantasy" as a marketing category.^[30] Tolkien has been called the "father" of modern fantasy,^[31][32][33] or more specifically of high fantasy.^[34] The result was an outpouring of novels, games,fan fiction, and fantasy artwork all based on, imitative of, or reacting against Tolkien: a wider frame created by many hands using a diverse range of media.^[35] The author and editor ofJournal of the Fantastic in the Arts,Brian Attebery, writes that fantasy is defined "not by boundaries but by a centre", which isThe Lord of the Rings.^[36]

• 
  Editorial framing ofThe Lord of the Rings has proceeded from Tolkien's fictional editor who supposedly translated theRed Book of Westmarch, tohis son Christopher who genuinely edited the many draft manuscripts for the book, toPeter Jackson's films which radically revised the story and its focus, and on to a mass of materials by many hands in a wide variety of media.

The Catholic author Mark Shea wrote a mock work ofphilological scholarship, set in the distant future, looking back at the works attributed to Tolkien and toPeter Jackson. Shea states that "Experts insource-criticism now know thatThe Lord of the Rings isa redaction of sources ranging fromThe Red Book of Westmarch (W) toElvish Chronicles (E) toGondorian records (G) to orally transmitted tales of theRohirrim (R)", each with "their own agendas", like "the 'Tolkien' (T) and 'Peter Jackson' (PJ) redactors". He notes confidently that "we may be quite certain that 'Tolkien' (if he ever existed) did notwrite this work in the conventional sense, but that it was assembled over a long period of time ..."^[37]

• Artamonova, Maria (2010). "Writing for an Anglo-Saxon audience in the twentieth century: J.R.R. Tolkien's Old English Chronicles". In Clark, David; Perkins, Nicholas (eds.).Anglo-Saxon Culture and the Modern Imagination. Cambridge:D. S. Brewer. pp. 71–88.
• Brljak, Vladimir (2010). "The Books of Lost Tales: Tolkien as Metafictionist".Tolkien Studies.7 (1):1–34.doi:10.1353/tks.0.0079.ISSN 1547-3163.
• Burdge, Anthony S.; Burke, Jessica (2011b) [2004]. "Humiliated Heroes: Peter Jackson's Interpretation ofThe Lord of the Rings". InHonegger, Thomas (ed.).Translating Tolkien: Text and Film. Cormarë series. Vol. 6.Walking Tree Publishers. pp. 129–155.ISBN 978-3-9521424-9-3.
• Butler, Catherine (2013). "Tolkien and Worldbuilding". In Hunt, Peter (ed.).J. R. R. Tolkien: The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings.Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 106–120.ISBN 978-1-137-26399-5.
• Carpenter, Humphrey (1977).J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography. New York:Ballantine Books.ISBN 978-0-04-928037-3.
• Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981].The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien: Revised and Expanded Edition. New York:HarperCollins.ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4.
• Ferré, Vincent (2022). "The Son Behind the Father: Christopher Tolkien as a Writer". InOvenden, Richard; McIlwaine, Catherine (eds.).The Great Tales Never End: Essays in Memory of Christopher Tolkien.Bodleian Library Publishing. pp. 53–69.ISBN 978-1-8512-4565-9.
• Flieger, Verlyn (1983).Splintered Light: Logos and Language in Tolkien's World. Grand Rapids, Michigan:William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.ISBN 978-0-8028-1955-0.
• Flieger, Verlyn (2000). "The Footsteps of Ælfwine". In Flieger, Verlyn;Hostetter, Carl F. (eds.).Tolkien's Legendarium: Essays on The History of Middle-earth. Westport:Greenwood Press. pp. 183–198.
• Flieger, Verlyn (2005).Interrupted Music: The Making of Tolkien's Mythology.Kent State University Press.
• Harvey, Kate (2013). "From Illustration to Film: Visual Narratives and Target Audiences". In Hunt, Peter (ed.).J. R. R. Tolkien: The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings.Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN 978-1-137-26399-5.
• Honegger, Thomas (2013) [2007]. "Ælfwine (Old English "Elf-friend")". InDrout, Michael D. C. (ed.).J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Oxford:Taylor & Francis. pp. 4–5.
• Kullmann, Thomas (2009)."Intertextual Patterns in JRR Tolkien's The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings".Nordic Journal of English Studies.8 (2):37–56.doi:10.35360/njes.190.
• Nagy, Gergely (2020) [2014]."The Silmarillion: Tolkien's Theory of Myth, Text, and Culture". InLee, Stuart D. (ed.).A Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien.John Wiley & Sons. pp. 107–118.ISBN 978-1-119-65602-9.
• Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982].The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology (Third ed.).HarperCollins.ISBN 978-0-261-10275-0.
• Tolkien, J. R. R. (1955).The Return of the King.The Lord of the Rings. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.OCLC 519647821.
• Tolkien, J. R. R. (1977).Christopher Tolkien (ed.).The Silmarillion. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.ISBN 978-0-395-25730-2.
• Tolkien, J. R. R. (1980).Christopher Tolkien (ed.).Unfinished Tales. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.ISBN 978-0-395-29917-3.
• Tolkien, J. R. R. (1984).Christopher Tolkien (ed.).The Book of Lost Tales. Vol. 1. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.ISBN 0-395-35439-0.
• Turner, Allan (2011a). "A Theoretical Model for Tolkien Translation Criticism". InHonegger, Thomas (ed.).Tolkien in Translation. Cormarë series. Vol. 4. Zurich:Walking Tree Publishers. pp. 1–30.ISBN 978-3-9521424-6-2.

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