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Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a singleparadigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories in particular cases. However, this is often without conventions or rules dictating how or which theories were combined.
Eclecticism inethics,philosophy,politics, andreligion is often compared tosyncretism, but the two concepts differ in their approach to combining elements from different traditions. While syncretism inreligion involves the merging orassimilation of several distinct traditions into a new, unified system, eclecticism adopts elements from various systems without necessarily integrating them into a single cohesive framework. This distinction allows for a broader, more inclusive approach in eclecticism, where the selection is based on individual merit or preference rather than an attempt to create a new unified tradition.
Eclecticism was first recorded to have been practiced by a group ofancient Greek andRoman philosophers who attached themselves to no real system, but selected from existing philosophical beliefs those doctrines that seemed most reasonable to them.[1] Out of this collected material they constructed their new system of philosophy. The term comes from theGreekἐκλεκτικός (eklektikos), literally "choosing the best",[2][3] and that fromἐκλεκτός (eklektos), "picked out, select".[4] Well known eclectics inGreek philosophy were the StoicsPanaetius andPosidonius, and theNew AcademicsCarneades andPhilo of Larissa. Among theRomans,Cicero was thoroughly eclectic, as he united thePeripatetic,Stoic, and New Academic doctrines. Philo's successor and Cicero's teacherAntiochus of Ascalon is credited with influencing the Academy so that it finally transitioned fromSkepticism to Eclecticism.[5] Other eclectics includedVarro andSeneca the Younger.
According to Rošker and Suhadolnik, however, even though eclecticism had a Greek origin, the term was rarely used and it was even given a negative connotation by historians of Greek thought, associating it with the description for impure and unoriginal thinking.[6] Scholars such asClement of Alexandria maintained that eclecticism had a long history in Greek philosophy and it is underpinned by a deeper metaphysical and theological conviction concerning theabsolute/God as the source of all noble thoughts and that all parts of the truth can be found among the various philosophical systems.[7]
The term eclecticism is used to describe the combination, in a single work, of elements from different historical styles, chiefly in architecture and, by implication, in the fine and decorative arts. The term is sometimes also loosely applied to the general stylistic variety of 19th-century architecture afterneoclassicism (c. 1820), although the revivals of styles in that period have, since the 1970s, generally been referred to as aspects ofhistoricism.[8]
Eclecticism plays an important role in critical discussions and evaluations but is somehow distant from the actual forms of the artifacts to which it is applied, and its meaning is thus rather indistinct. The simplest definition of the term—that every work of art represents the combination of a variety of influences—is so basic as to be of little use. In some ways Eclecticism is reminiscent ofMannerism in that the term was used pejoratively for much of the period of its currency, although, unlike Mannerism, Eclecticism never amounted to a movement or constituted a specific style: it is characterized precisely by the fact that it was not a particular style.
Somemartial arts can be described as eclectic in the sense that they borrow techniques from a wide variety of other martial arts.
Intextual criticism, eclecticism is the practice of examining a wide number of text witnesses and selecting the variant that seems best. The result of the process is a text with readings drawn from many witnesses. In a purely eclectic approach, no single witness is theoretically favored. Instead, the critic forms opinions about individual witnesses, relying on both external and internal evidence.
Since the mid-19th century, eclecticism, in which there is noa priori bias to a single manuscript, has been the dominant method of editing the Greek text of theNew Testament (currently, theUnited Bible Society, 4th ed. and Nestle-Åland, 27th ed.). Even so, the oldest manuscripts, being of theAlexandrian text-type, are the most favored, and the critical text has an Alexandrian disposition.[9]
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InHellenistic philosophy, theEclectics used elements from multiple philosophies, texts, life experiences, and their own philosophical ideas.[10] These ideas include life as connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. This movement is closely associated withMiddle Platonism. Eclectic thinkers thrived during theRoman Empire. According to theCatholic Encyclopedia, eclecticism "aims at constructing a system broad and vague enough to include, or not to exclude, the principles of the divers schools, though giving at times more importance to those of one school".[10] Roman Empire eclectic figures could belong to a specific philosophical schools while remaining eclectic and drawing on different traditions. Key figures includeAsclepiades of Bithynia,Boethius,Panetius of Rhodes,Posidonius, Demetrius the Cynic,Demonax,Philo of Larissa,Antiochus of Ascalon,Andronicus of Rhodes,Aristocles,Alexander of Aphrodisias,Porphyry andSimplicius.[10]
Antiochus of Ascalon (c. 125 – c. 69 BC) was the pupil ofPhilo of Larissa, and the teacher ofCicero. Through his influence,Platonism transitioned from theAcademic Skepticism of theNew Academy to Eclecticism.[11]: 273 Whereas Philo had adhered to thedoctrine that there is nothing absolutely certain, Antiochus abandoned this to supportdogmatism. Among his objections to skepticism was the consideration that without firm convictions no rational content of life is possible.[11]: 273 Antiochus pointed out that it is a contradiction to assert that nothing can be asserted or to prove that nothing can be proved; that we cannot speak of false ideas and at the same time deny the distinction between false and true.[11]: 274 He expounded the Academic,Peripatetic, andStoic systems in such a way as to show that these three schools deviated from one another only in minor points.[11]: 274 Antiochus was chiefly interested inethics, in which he tried to find a middle way betweenZeno of Citium,Aristotle, andPlato. For instance, he said thatvirtue suffices foreudaimonia, but for the highest grade of happiness, bodily and external goods are necessary as well.[11]: 274
This eclectic tendency was enabled by the fact that most ofPlato's works were non-dogmatic.[11]: 305 Middle Platonism was promoted by the necessity of considering the main theories of the post-Platonic schools of philosophy, such as the Aristotelian logic and the Stoic psychology and ethics (theory of goods and emotions).[11]: 306 On the one hand the Middle Platonists were engaged like the later Peripatetics in scholarly activities such as the exposition of Plato's doctrines and the explanation of his dialogues; on the other hand they attempted to develop the Platonic theories systematically. In so far as it was subject in this to the influence ofNeopythagoreanism, it was of considerable importance in preparing the way forNeoplatonism.[11]: 306
Inmodern philosophy,Victor Cousin was the founder of modern Eclecticism.[12]
Eclecticism is recognized in approaches topsychology that see many factors influencing behavior andcognition orpsyche. In the 1970s, psychologists started using whichever approaches and techniques that they deemed appropriate for their client.[13] They take multiple perspectives into consideration while identifying, explaining, and changing the behavior of the client.[13]
Indian religions and philosophies are often eclectic, in the sense of drawing upon ideas and practices from diverse philosophical and religious traditions. Indian thought included a diversity of traditions, each with its own distinct teachings and practices, such asVedānta,Sāṃkhya,Nyāya, andBuddhism. These traditions have shown a remarkable ability to assimilate and adapt elements from one another. This tendency goes back to theUpaniṣads, which incorporate and synthesize a wide array of ideas about the nature of reality, the self (ātman), and the ultimate principle (Brahman). The Upaniṣads do not represent a single, uniform doctrine but rather various perspectives.
Medieval India saw the rise ofbhakti movements, which were also characterized by their eclectic use of varying philosophical ideas and religious practices, including Vedānta,Tantra, and local folk practices. Similarly, theSikh tradition exemplifies eclecticism by combining elements of bhakti Hinduism andIslam. Modern Hinduism is also the result of an eclectic process that brought together numerous philosophical and religious influences (Unifying Hinduism). Modern Hindu figures likeSwami Vivekananda andMahatma Gandhi continued this tradition of eclecticism. Vivekananda drew upon Vedānta, Sāṃkhya-Yoga, and Western philosophy to present a universalist view of religion. Gandhi, influenced by Jain, Hindu, and Christian ideas, developed a unique philosophy of nonviolence (ahimsa) and social activism.
Indian Buddhism, especially theMahāyāna tradition is also notable for its openness to a wide range of philosophical ideas and practices. Mahāyāna absorbed and reinterpreted concepts from earlier Buddhist schools while also integrating elements and deities from non-Buddhist traditions. The laterVajrayana Buddhist movement also drew on numerous Mahayana streams of thought as well as onShaiva Tantra to develop its systems of thought and practice.
In a similar fashion,Chinese thought can also tend towards the harmonization of diverse philosophical and religious traditions, allowing for the coexistence and mutual influence ofConfucianism,Daoism,Buddhism, and other indigenous beliefs. The three major Chinese religious and philosophical traditions - Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism - have been coexisting and interacting with one another for over two millennia. The synthesis of the "Three Teachings" (Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism) became increasingly pronounced in later periods of Chinese history. TheSong dynasty (960–1279 CE) witnessed the rise ofNeo-Confucianism, a movement that sought to revitalize Confucian thought in response to the growing influence of Buddhism and Daoism. Neo-Confucian thinkers such asZhu Xi andWang Yangming developed more systematic and metaphysical systems which drew upon other systems of thought, including Buddhism. In the modern era, intellectuals of the late Qing dynasty and the Republican period, such asKang Youwei andLiang Qichao, sought to integrate Western philosophical ideas with traditional Chinese thought. In contemporary China, there is a renewed interest in Confucianism, often blended with elements of modernity and other philosophical systems to address current social and ethical issues.
Media related toEclecticism in art at Wikimedia Commons
