This article is about the musical concept. For the plural of echo and other uses, seeEchoes (disambiguation).
Echos (Greek:ἦχος[ˈixos] 'sound', pl.echoiἦχοι[ˈiçi];Old Church Slavonic:гласъ[glasŭ] 'voice, sound') is the name inByzantine music theory for a mode within the eight-mode system (oktoechos), each of them ruling severalmelody types, and it is used in the melodic and rhythmic composition of Byzantine chant ("thesis of the melos"), differentiated according to the chant genre and according to the performance style ("method of the thesis"). It is akin to a Western medievaltonus, an Andalusiantab', an Arab naġam (since 1400 "maqam"), or a Persian parde (since 18th-centurydastgah).
The nounechos in Greek means "sound" in general. It acquired the specialized meaning ofmode early on in the development of Byzantine music theory since theOctoechosreform in 692.
In general, the concept of echos denotes a certainoctave species, its intervallic structure as well as a set of more or less explicitly formulated melodic rules and formulae that represent a certain category of melodies within the musical genre. As such, echos is the basis for composing or improvising new melodies that belong to it, as well as for properly performing existing pieces that have been written in it. These rules include the distinction of a hierarchy of degrees (tones, notes), where certain degrees figure as cadence notes (ἑστώτες) around which the melody will revolve prominently, or on which the melody will end most of the time. However, only very late stages of the theory (19th-20th century) actually provide systematic descriptions of echoi, while earlier stages use mostly diagrams, indirect descriptions and examples. Explicit detailed descriptions must still be provided based on extensive analysis, as is the case with modal phenomena in numerous other cultures.
Early treatises only state the initial or "base" degree (η βασή) which is the tone sung as a burden (ἴσον) by certain singers of the choir calledisokrates in order to support any melody composed in a certain echos. By this support singers (psaltes) could easily recognise the relative position of each note as it was organised by tetrachords based on the basis note of each echos. This base degree of the mode was communicated by an intonation formula of a foresinger, known asenechema.
The "martyriai of the echoi" (column 2 & 4: main signatures) and the "martyriai of the phthongoi" (column 3: medial signatures) in the disposition of the "Diapason system" no longer represent the diapente betweenkyrios andplagios in the diatonic trochos system (Chrysanthos1832, p. 168). Note that thedeuteros andtetartos have exchanged their position within themodern Octoechos, since they are represented as mesoi.
There are different styles by which to notate enechema which are crucial to the understanding of the different chant books and their notation. All these forms were written in red ink. The explicit long form was called by Jørgen Raastedintonation,[1] but only the books of the cathedral rite used such explicitintonations, also between the sections, where these intonations were calledmedial intonation. This explicit form made sense, since the intonation also communicated the changes between the left and the right choir and their leaders performed these intonations to coordinate these changes. There was a short form as well which was calledmodal signature. It indicated the echos by the numeral like πλα' for "plagios protos," while the neumes sung with the last syllable of theenechema were written above right to the numeral. This short form was used in two different ways, asmain signature (in the table calledαἱ μαρτυρίαι τῶν ἤχων, "the witnesses of the echoi") it indicated the echos of a whole composition, but especially in sticheraria notators also wrotemedial signatures (in the table calledαἱ μαρτυρίαι τῶν φθόγγων, "the witnesses ofphthongoi", pitches memorised byechemata) between the neumes above a kolon of the text, in order to indicate that the melos changed here into another echos. The traditional Greek term for thesemedial signatures was "martyria" (μαρτυρία), since the medial signature also "testified" the phthongos of the cadence made at the kolon.
Within the dialogue treatise (erotapokriseis) a catalogue of short formulas memorizes each echos of theHagiopolitan octoechos and its twophthorai (νενανῶ andνανὰ). These formulas are also called "echemata" (ἠχήματα)—or more often "enechemata" (ἐνηχήματα) or "apechemata" (ἀπηχήματα). The useechemata was also imitated by Carolingiancantors who used similar intonation formulas and collected them in a separate book calledtonary.
Intonation according to Erotapokriseis and standard intonation ofechos protos: "You descend 4 steps [φοναὶ] from the echos protos [kyrios protos/authentic protus] and you will find again the plagios protos, this way"
Intonation according to Erotapokriseis and standard intonation ofechos devteros: "You do the same way inechos devteros. If you descend 4 steps to find its plagios, i.e. πλ β', thus"
Intonation according to Erotapokriseis and standard intonation of echos tritos: "Hence, you descend four steps from echos tritos and you will find its plagios which is called 'grave' (βαρύς), this way"
Intonation according to Erotapokriseis and standard intonation of echostetartos: "Also from echostetartos you descend 4 steps [φοναὶ] and you will find its plagios, which is πλ δ', like this way"
Theenechemata of the medieval eight diatonic echoi already present a fundamental difference to theCarolingian octoechos:
the kyrios and plagios do use the same octave species, but their basis tone with the ison is on the top of the pentachord within the mele of kyrioi echoi, while it is on the bottom within the mele of plagioi echoi;
the octave species (D—a—d, E—b—e, B flat—F—b flat, and C—G—c) are different as well from the Western octoechos as from the New Method, which had adapted the fret scheme of thetambur fingerboard as the common tonal reference for all Ottoman musicians. Traditional protopsaltes at Athos and Istanbul who belong to local schools of the eighteenth century, do indeed not follow the Chrysanthine intonation, they always intone a pentachord on a pure fifth between the bases of echos varys and kyrios tritos.
there is no absolute nor fixed position of the octave species. Sticheraric and papadic chant genres exploit not only the possibility to change between the echoi, but also the characteristic that every note (phthongos "sound, voice") has an echos defined by the octoechos. A register change is usually arranged by a transposition about a fifth, which turns a kyrios into a plagios and vice versa. Also other temporary transpositions are possible (see the five rings of the bigger Koukouzelian wheel), but not frequent.
the ruling tone system is tetraphonic and based on fifth equivalence which allows the fore mentioned register changes. Heptaphonia (similar to the Western use of systema teleion and solfège with seven syllables) exist only on the level of a melos within a certain echos. Changes to the triphonic system are indicated by thephthora nana.
except of a pure diatonic octoechos the chromatic and enharmonic genus is not excluded, since even theHagiopolitan octoechos accepted the use of twophthorai (νενανὼ andνανὰ).
"Parallage ofJohn Koukouzeles": The four peripheral wheels for the Octoechos (top left:protos echoi; top right:devteros echoi; bottom left:tritos echoi; bottom right:tetartos echoi) and the tetraphonic tone system and its transpositions in the center—Koukouzelian wheel in an 18th-century manuscript (manuscript of the private collection by Demetrios Kontogiorges)
Echemata of the Papadikai and their modern interpretation
More information on the structure of echoi is only indicated in a very rudimentary way through diagrams involvingneumes—the Byzantine round notation. The details of the actual intervallic and melodic structure of echoi are virtually impossible to deduce from theoretical treatises prior to the 18th century. In fact, only relatively late systematic comparisons of the echoi with the makamlar ofOttoman court music, such as those by theKyrillos Marmarinos,Archbishop ofTinos, in his manuscript dated 1747, and the reform of the Byzantine notation byChrysanthos of Madytos at the first half of the 19th century make it possible to understand the structure of echoi and to attempt reconstructions of melodies from earlier manuscripts.
Chrysanthos'Parallage according to the trochos system (1832, p. 30)
He already introduced his readers into thediatonic genus and itsphthongoi in the 5th chapter of the first book, called "About theparallage of the diatonic genus" (Περὶ Παραλλαγῆς τοῦ Διατονικοῦ Γένους). In the 8th chapter he demonstrates, how the intervals can be found on the fingerboard of thetambur.[3]
Hence, thephthongoi of thediatonic genus had been defined according to the proportions, as they were later called the "soft chroa of the diatonic genus" (τὸ γένος μαλακὸν διατονικὸν). For Chrysanthos this was the only diatonic genus, as far as it had been used since the early church musicians, who memorised thephthongoi by the intonation formulas (enechemata) of thePapadic Octoechos. In fact, he did not use the historical intonations, he rather translated them in the Koukouzelian wheel in the 9th chapter (Περὶ τοῦ Τροχοῦ) according to a current practice of parallage, which was common to 18th-century versions ofPapadike:
Thepentachord which was also calledwheel (τροχὸς), contains four intervals which we regard as certain tones [ἐλάσσων τόνος, ἐλάχιστος τόνος, and 2 μείζονες τόνοι]. The four intervals spanned fivephthongoi:
πα βου γα δι Πα ["Πα" means here the fifth-equivalent for the protos: α']
These five stations of the pentachord could be memorised by theechemata of the kyrioi echoi in ascending direction or by those of the plagioi echoi in descending direction (see Chrysanthos' explanation of thetrochos parallage). Each of theseechemata had the potential to develop an own melos within its melody types:
Intonations (ἐνηχήματα) for theechoi plagios devteros, varys, andplagios tetartos listed in a 17th-century papadike treatise—the intonations are followed by chant incipits (London, British Library, Harley 5544, fol. 8r)
Each echema is followed by the incipit of a sticheron idiomelon which illustrates a certain melos of the echos. The following book Kekragarion illustrates, how the hesperinos psalmκύριε ἐκέκραξα has to be sung according to thesticheraric melos of each echos. The Kekragarion was later included in the printed editions of theAnastasimatarion orVoskresnik.
In the chapter "On theapechemata" (Περὶ Ἀπηχημάτων) of his "Great Theoretikon",[5] Chrysanthos translated theByzantine octoechos and its intonation formulas (apechemata, orenechemata), as they could be found in the Papadikai, by offering an exegesis of the papadicapechemata in comparison to the simpler forms used by Orthodox chanters today. They served as kind of model for the composition within a certain melos, similar to the seyirler of an Ottomanmakam.
In the first descending half he made the usual cadence on D (πα, phthongosπλα') which corresponds to the finalis of the modern melos, while it was once the finalis and the basis of the plagios protos. The second half, when the melos raises again, but within the papadic melos (used with acherubikon orkoinonikon) it prepared a change to another base tone on the upper tetrachord like a (κε, phthongosα').[6]
Hence, according to the current practice of Orthodox chant the protos mele were rather based on the lower tetrachord, but the formula could be used a fifth higher likewise. The step between the phthongoi oftetartos (δ') andprotos (α') could be C—D (νη—πα) or G—a (δι—κε).
Concerning the enechema of theplagios protos, it had not changed during the centuries.
Current and ancient enechema ofechos plagios protos (Chrysanthos 1832, 139)
Unlike the tradition which always used register changes, the modern interpretation did not fix the base degree of echos plagios protos to the bottom of the pentachord, it could appear regularly at the top like in the troparic and heirmologic melos: a (κε)—c (νη')—b (ζω')—a (κε) or D (πα)—F (γα)—E (βου)—D (πα).[7]
Chrysanthos' exegesis just passed the protos pentachord D (πα)—a (κε) in an ascending movement, before using the cadence pattern to the base degree of the mode.
Chrysanthos exegesis of plagios protos enechema (Chrysanthos 1832, 139)
Chrysanthos' bridges between the diatonicechos devteros of the Byzantine past and the chromatic melos of the present Orthodox traditions. The latter is characterised by the constant use of the mesos form, which is not on thephthongoi ofdevteros—b natural (ζω',phthongos β') and E (βου, phthongos πλβ'), but between them on G (δι,phthongos πλδ').
The usual diatonickyrios form was thisenechema, but only the descending part would lead to the base tone of themesos devteros.
The medievalenechema of the diatonicechos devteros (Chrysanthos 1832, 137)
As a consequence, Chrysanthos' exegesis starts and ends on this mesos, but it follows theHagiopolitan convention to pass through the formerdevteros pentachord, but he even passes through thetetartos pentachord C (νη,phthongos πλδ')—G (δι, phthongos δ'), as it used by the current melos ofechos devteros.
Chrysanthos exegesis of thedevteros enechema (Chrysanthos 1832, 137f)
Concerning the chromatic melos of thedevteros echoi in the currentoctoechos, thepapadicdevteros mele had become "soft chromatic" under the influence of thephthora nenano.
Nevertheless, according to the very particular interpretation of Chrysanthos the melos and scale ofechos devteros is ruled by a diphonic organisation based on just two diatonic intervals: the major and minor tone. As a result, the octave C—c between νη and νη' becomes slightly diminished. Chrysanthos' concept of diphonia was so radical that it found no commonplace in current chant manuals, instead a lot alternative interpretations proposed various divisions of the chromatic tetrachords between νη—γα (C—F) and δι—νη' (G—c).
Chrysanthos' parallage ofechos devteros in thesoft chromatic genus (1832, pp. 106-108)
At the end of his chapter "on theapechemata" Chrysanthos offers aseparate exegesis of phthora nenano as a modern deduction of theplagios devteros enechema, whose medieval form was this. But it had moved now with thephthora nenano to thephthongos ofplagios protos.[8]
The medieval enechema of the diatonicechos plagios devteros (Chrysanthos 1832, 138)
Chrysanthos did not offer any exegesis for the apechema of the diatonic echos tritos. He only mentions the intonation ofphthora nana instead, which is still used as the echos tritos intonation formula in current Orthodox traditions.
Hence, his exegesis of this enharmonic phthora is within the enharmonic genus and the triphonic tone system of thephthora nana.[9]
The same enharmonic interpretation was done with the plagios called "echos varys" (grave mode), obviously in certain cases, when theplagios tetartos was expected of fourth under the base tone. Hence, the enharmonictritos echoi are not separated by a pentachord, but usually both set on F (γα, phthongos γ' as well as υαρ), in troparic, sticheraric and heirmologic mele:
Traditional intonation formula of ἦχος βαρύς (Chrysanthos 1832, 140—§313)Enharmonic exegesis of the diatonic intonation of ἦχος βαρύς (Chrysanthos 1832, 140—§313)Modern enechema of the enharmonic ἦχος βαρύς (Chrysanthos 1832, 140—§313)
Within the papadic chant genre (cherubika,koinonika), but also during the composed recitation ofPolyeleos psalms and kalophonicheirmoi (Ἄξιον ἐστίν), the diatonic melos ofechos varys was chosen. Its base tone was onephthongos below theplagios tetartos. According to Chrysanthos it diminished the tritos pentachord to a kind of tritone, at least when it was set on fret arak of the Ottomantambur, but there are also more traditional ways of intonation depending on the local school of a chanter.[10]
Modern enechema of the lower diatonic ἦχος βαρύς (Chrysanthos 1832, 140—§313)
The originaltetartos pentachord betweenplagios and kyrios—C (νη) and G (δι) or likewise G (δι) and d (πα')—does still exist in the papadic melos of echostetartos, which is known as the "papadic Agia" (Ἅγια παπαδικῆς).[11]
Traditional enechema ofἦχος τέταρτος (Chrysanthos 1832, 138—§312)
Chrysanthos made for the papadic melos this exegesis.
Chrysanthos' exegesis of theἦχος τέταρτος enechema (Chrysanthos 1832, 138—§312)
A commonly used form ofἍγια παπαδικῆς might be the one which Chrysanthos mentions as the one used byPetros Peloponnesios.
Enechema of the papadic echostetartos (Chrysanthos 1832, 139—§312)
The diatonic plagios oftetartos according to the enechema known from the treatises called Papadikai[12]
Traditional enechema ofἦχος πλάγιος τοῦ τετάρτου (Chrysanthos 1832, 140—§316)
which was interpreted by Chrysanthos, as follows.
Chrysanthos' exegesis of theplagios tetartos enechema (Chrysanthos 1832, 140—§316)
Since theplagios devteros has moved to thephthongos ofplagios protos (πλα'), the originalphthongos of the diatonicplagios devteros was vacant. In fact, as a diatonic phthora it was represented by a medial signature of the so-called "echos legetos" (ἦχος λέγετος) which had preserved the diatonic intonation ofplagios devteros.[13]
Traditional enechema of the echos legetos (Chrysanthos 1832, 141—§317)
The signature was used within theheirmologion kalophonikon, since heirmoi ofdevteros echoi were still treated as a diatonic melos unlike the school of Petros Peloponnesios and his followerPetros Byzantios. According to their school theechos legetos was part of thetetartos echoi, as amesos tetartos it was used for the heirmologic melos, where the base and final degree was a low intoned E (βου), and for thesticheraric melos, which had the base degree of the mode and closing cadences on D (πα), but the concluding finalis E (βου).
Chrysanthos interpreted alsoechos legetos as a diatonicmesos tetartos.
Chrysanthos' exegesis of the echos legetos (Chrysanthos 1832, 141—§317)
He also mentioned a common enechema as it was used by Iakovos the Protopsaltes.
The echoi of the psalmody are eight. Theapechemata preserved though are ten, because theechos tetartos, and theplagios of thedevteros, have twoapechemata each.
But unlike the Hagiopolites, where thephthora nana was mentioned as a "mesos tetartos" and thenenano phthora as "mesos devteros",echos legetos seemed to have slipped into themesos tetartos role, but it was a diatonic mesos, not an enharmonic likephthora nana. In fact, Chrysanthos could not longer mention nana and nenano as additionalechoi, since their melos had already replaced the diatonic mele of thedevteros andtritos echoi.
Echos vs. maqam in eponymous compositional practice
In otherOttoman music traditions like the list of composedMevlevi dance suites as models of well-known and new makamlar created byeponymous masters resulted in a proliferation of modes (makamlar,maqamat),[15] echoi are not attributed to specific composers, but are rather regarded as belonging to the collective and anonymous heritage of liturgicalchant. Eponymous compositions do exist throughout most of the history of Byzantine chant, but their echos is always classified from within the system of existingechoi. Due to an interest for makamlar compositions Phanariotes like Georgios the Protopsaltes, one of the great teachers of Orthodox chant, also became a student of the dervish composer Dede Efendi, after he had learntTurkish. Byzantine notation developed as a universal notation system during the 19th century which includes even attempts to integrate makamlar within the mele of the Octoechos, while ornamental details became part of an oral tradition.[16]
The system of echoi is rich and diverse. Closer study and comparison with modal systems of neighboring cultures reveals a complex network of cultural and ethnic influences throughout the centuries—a vivid exchange between musicians across the borders of ethnic and religious identity (Phanariotes).[17] The basic theory of echoi is formalized in a system of eight modes called the Octoechos. See the articleNeobyzantine Octoechos for a discussion of its origins and a critique of this concept vis-a-vis actual practice.
^As an example listen to the papadic protos melos at the beginning ofPetros Bereketis' kalophonic composition aboutΘεοτόκε παρθένε (Demosthenis Païkopoulos). After three minutes the base tone changes to the higher tetrachord.
^In the papadic melos of echos plagios protos it is rather in the lower register, but this melos is nearly the same with respect to the one of kyrios protos. Listen to the fifth section of Bereketis'Θεοτόκε παρθένε, whereManolis Chatzimarkos uses a free monosyllabic enechema which seems closer to the kyrios formula. The difference is a stronger emphasise of the mesos or diphonos F (γα) which sometimes attracts G (δι), especially amongPhanariotes.
^For the proper intonation of the enharmonic diesis which is augmented in descending direction, listen to Manolis Chatzimarkos'interpretation of theechos plagios devteros section inPetros Bereketis' didactic chant (mathema).
^The Chrysanthine intonation is commonly used in all Orthodox monodic traditions of the Balkans, but there are traditionalists at Istanbul and Athos who prefer another diatonic varys intonation according to the trochos system (Gerlach 2006, 889-890). Father Dositheos from the Athonite tradition for instance uses thetrochos intonation, when he sings the varys section ofPetros Bereketis' kalophonic composition aboutΘεοτόκε παρθένε.
^Listen to the section echostetartos in Petros' kalophonic theotokion sung byCharilaos Taliadoros which he composed in this melos.
^Hence, it also still in use within the papadic melos of the currentechos plagios tetartos, listen to the eighth section of Petros' kalophonic composition passing through all the eight echoi, here sung by the Athonite psaltisFather Antipas. This section modulates back to the main echos of the beginning: protos echos. The conclusion can be listened according to a third Athonite singerDionysios Firfiris whose deliberate elaboration helps to re-establish the melos reached by the end of the preceding section.
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!["You descend 4 steps [φοναὶ] from the echos protos [kyrios protos/authentic protus: a—G—F—E—DD] and you will find again the plagios protos, this way [D—F—E—DD]."](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEnechemata_(%25E1%25BC%25A6%25CF%2587%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CF%2580%25CF%2581%25E1%25BF%25B6%25CF%2584%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582%2c_%25E1%25BC%25A6%25CF%2587%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CF%2580%25CE%25BB%25CE%25B1%25CE%25B3%25CE%25B9%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CF%2584%25CE%25BF%25E1%25BF%25A6_%25CF%2580%25CF%2581%25CF%258E%25CF%2584%25CE%25BF%25CF%2585).jpg)
![You do the same way in echos devteros. If you descend 4 steps [b—a—G—F—EE] to find its plagios, i.e. πλ β', thus [E—F—G—F—EE].](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEnechemata_(%25E1%25BC%25A6%25CF%2587%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CE%25B4%25CE%25B5%25CF%258D%25CF%2584%25CE%25B5%25CF%2581%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582%2c_%25E1%25BC%25A6%25CF%2587%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CF%2580%25CE%25BB%25CE%25AC%25CE%25B3%25CE%25B9%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CF%2584%25CE%25BF%25E1%25BF%25A6_%25CE%25B4%25CE%25B5%25CF%2585%25CF%2584%25CE%25AD%25CF%2581%25CE%25BF%25CF%2585).jpg)
![Hence, you descend four steps from echos tritos 4 steps [c—c—b—c—G—a—G—a—G—F—E—FF] and you will find its plagios which is called 'grave' (βαρύς), this way [F—G—E#—FF].](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEnechemata_(%25E1%25BC%25A6%25CF%2587%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CF%2584%25CF%2581%25CE%25AF%25CF%2584%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582%2c_%25E1%25BC%25A6%25CF%2587%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CE%25B2%25CE%25B1%25CF%2581%25CF%258D%25CF%2582).jpg)
![Also from echos tetartos you descend 4 steps [φοναὶ: G—F—E—D—CC] and you will find its plagios, which is πλ δ', like this way [C—D—C—CC].](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aEnechemata_(%25E1%25BC%25A6%25CF%2587%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CF%2584%25CE%25AD%25CF%2584%25CE%25B1%25CF%2581%25CF%2584%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582%2c_%25E1%25BC%25A6%25CF%2587%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CF%2580%25CE%25BB%25CE%25AC%25CE%25B3%25CE%25B9%25CE%25BF%25CF%2582_%25CF%2584%25CE%25BF%25E1%25BF%25A6_%25CF%2584%25CE%25B5%25CF%2584%25CE%25AC%25CF%2581%25CF%2584%25CE%25BF%25CF%2585).jpg)
