Theearly Germanic calendars were the regionalcalendars used among the earlyGermanic peoples before they adopted theJulian calendar in theEarly Middle Ages. The calendars were an element ofearly Germanic culture.
The Germanic peoples had names for the months that varied by region and dialect, but they were later replaced with local adaptations of theJulian month names. Records ofOld English andOld High German month names date to the 8th and 9th centuries, respectively.Old Norse month names are attested from the 13th century. As with most pre-modern calendars, the reckoning used in earlyGermanic culture was likelylunisolar. As an example, theRunic calendar developed inmedieval Sweden was lunisolar, fixing the beginning of the year at the firstfull moon afterwinter solstice.
The Germanic calendars werelunisolar, the months corresponding tolunations.Tacitus writes in hisGermania (Chapter 11) that the Germanic peoples observed the lunar months.
The lunisolar calendar is reflected in theProto-Germanic term*mēnōþs "month" (Old Englishmōnaþ,Old Saxonmānuth,Old Norsemánaðr, andOld High Germanmānod,[1]Gothicmēnōþs[1][2]), being a derivation of the word for "moon",*mēnô—which shares its ancestry with the Greekmene "moon",men "month", and Latinmensis "month".
Tacitus gives some indication of how the Germanic peoples of the first century reckoned the days. In contrast to Roman usage, they considered the day to begin at sunset, a system that in the Middle Ages came to be known as the "Florentine reckoning". The same system is also recorded for theGauls in Caesar'sGallic Wars.
The concept of theweek, on the other hand, was adopted from the Romans, from about the first century, the variousGermanic languages having adopted the Greco-Roman system of naming of thedays of the week after theclassical planets, insertingloan translations for the names of the planets, substituting the names ofGermanic gods in a process known asinterpretatio germanica.
The year was divided into a summer half and a winter half, as attested inOld English and medieval Scandinavian sources. In Scandinavia this continued after Christianization; in Norway and Sweden the first day of summer is marked by theTiburtius Day [de] (14 April) and the first day of winter by theCalixtus Day (14 October).[4]
The month names do not coincide, so it is not possible to postulate names of aCommon Germanic stage, except possibly the names of a spring month and a winter month,*austrǭ and*jehwlą. The names of the seasons are Common Germanic,*sumaraz,*harbistaz,*wintruz, and*wazrą for "spring" in north Germanic, but in west Germanic the term*langatīnaz was used. The Common Germanic terms for "day", "month" and "year" were*dagaz,*mēnōþs and*jērą. The latter two continueProto-Indo-European*mḗh1n̥s,*yóh1r̥, while*dagaz is a Germanic innovation from a root*dhegwh- meaning "to be hot, to burn".
A number of terms for measuring time can be reconstructed for the proto-Germanic period.
| modern English | Proto- Germanic | Old English | English | Scots | West Frisian | Dutch | Low Saxon | German | Old Norse | Icelandic | Faroese | Swedish | Norwegian | Danish | Gothic | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Term | Nynorsk | Bokmål | ||||||||||||||
| daytime, 24 hour period | *dagaz | dæġ, dōgor | day | day, dey | dei | dag | Dag | Tag | dagr, dǿgn / dǿgr | dagur | dagur | dag, dygn | dag, døgn/døger | dag, døgn | dag, døgn | 𐌳𐌰𐌲𐍃 |
| night time | *nahts | niht | night | nicht | nacht | nacht | Nacht | Nacht | nátt | nótt | nátt | natt | natt | natt | nat | 𐌽𐌰𐌷𐍄𐍃 |
| week | *wikǭ | ƿiċe | week | wouk | wike | week | Wekke | Woche | vika | vika | vika | vecka | veke | uke | uge | 𐍅𐌹𐌺𐍉 |
| month | *mēnōþs | mōnaþ | month | month | moanne | maand | Mohnd (maond) | Monat | mánaðr | mánuður | mánaður | månad | månad | måned | måned | 𐌼𐌴𐌽𐍉𐌸𐍃 |
| year | *jērą | ġēar | year | year, ear | jier | jaar | Johr (jaor) | Jahr | ár | ár | ár | år | år | år | år | 𐌾𐌴𐍂 |
| interval / timespan / period | *tīdiz | tīd | tide | tide | tiid | tijd | Tiet | Zeit | tíð | tíð | tíð | tid | tid | tid | tid | *𐍄𐌴𐌹𐌳𐌹𐍃 |
| hour / timespan / period | *tīmô | tīma | time | time | tími | tími | tími | timme | time | time | time | *𐍄𐌴𐌹𐌼𐌰 | ||||
| Spring | *langatīnaz | lencten | Lent | Lentren | linte | lente | Lent | Lenz | *𐌻𐌰𐌲𐌲𐌰𐍄𐌴𐌹𐌽𐍃 | |||||||
| Spring | *wazrą- | vár | vor | vár | vår | vår | vår | forår (vår) | *𐍅𐌰𐌶𐍂 | |||||||
| Summer | *sumaraz | sumor | summer | simmer | simmer | zomer | Sommer | Sommer | sumar | sumar | summar | sommar | sommar / sumar | sommer | sommer | *𐍃𐌿𐌼𐌰𐍂𐍃 |
| Autumn / Fall | *harbistaz | hærfest | harvest | hairst | hjerst | herfst | Harvst | Herbst | haustr | haust | heyst | höst | haust | høst | efterår (høst) | *𐌷𐌰𐍂𐌱𐌹𐍃𐍄𐍃 |
| Winter | *wintruz | ƿinter | winter | winter | winter | winter | Winter | Winter | vintr / vetr | vetur | vetur | vinter | vinter / vetter | vinter | vinter | 𐍅𐌹𐌽𐍄𐍂𐌿𐍃 |
Bede's Latin workDe temporum ratione (The Reckoning of Time), written in 725, describes Old English month names. Bede mentionsintercalation, the intercalary month being inserted around midsummer.[5]
The following is an English translation[6] of Bede'sLatin text:
"It did not seem [right] to me that I should speak of other nations' observance of the year and yet be silent about my own nation's.[6]
In the old days the English people calculated their months according to the course of the moon. Hence, after the manner of the Greeks and the Romans, [the months] take their names from the Moon, for the Moon is calledmona and the monthmonath.
- The first month, which the Latins call January, isĠiuli;
- February is calledSolmonath;
- MarchHrethmonath;
- April,Eosturmonath;
- May,Thrimilchi;
- June,Litha;
- July [is] also [called]Litha;
- August,Weodmonath;
- September,Helegmonath;
- October,Winterfilleth;
- November,Blodmonath;
- December,Ġiuli – the same name by which January is called.[6]
They began the year on the 8th kalends of January [25 December], when wecelebrate the birth of the Lord. That very night, which we hold so sacred, they used to call by the heathen wordModranecht, that is, "mother's night", because (we suspect) of the ceremonies they enacted all that night.[6]
Whenever it was a common year, they gave three lunar months to each season. When a year with anembolismic month occurred (that is, one with 13 lunar months – instead of the usual 12) they assigned the extra month to summer, so that three months together bore the name"Litha"; hence they called [the embolismic] year"Thrilithi". It had four summer months, with the usual three for the other seasons.
But originally, they divided the year as a whole into two seasons: summer and winter. They assigned the six months in which the days are longer than the nights to summer, and the other six to winter. Hence they called the month in which the winter season began"Winterfilleth", a name made up from "winter" and "full moon", because winter began on thefull Moon of that month.[6]
Nor is it irrelevant if we take the trouble to translate the names of the other months:
- The [two] months ofGiuli derive their name from the day when the Sun turns back [and begins] to increase, because one of [these months] precedes [this day] and the other follows.[6]
- Solmonath can be called "month of cakes", which they offered to their gods in that month.
- Hrethmonath is named for their goddess Hretha, to whom they sacrificed at this time.
- Eosturmonath has a name which is now translated "Paschal month", and which was once called after a goddess of theirs namedEostre, in whose honour feasts were celebrated in that month. Now they designate that Paschal season by her name, calling the joys of the new rite by the time-honoured name of the old observance.
- Thrimilchi was so called because in that month the cattle were milked three times a day; such at one time, was the fertility of Britain or Germany, from whence the English nation came to Britain.
- Litha means "gentle" or "navigable", because in both these months the calm breezes are gentle, and they were wont to sail upon the smooth sea.
- Weodmonath means "month of tares (weeds)", for they are very plentiful then.
- Helegmonath means "month of sacred rites".
- Winterfilleth can be called by the invented composite name "winter-full".
- Blodmonath is "month of immolations", for then the cattle which were to be slaughtered were consecrated to their gods.
Good Jesu, thanks be to thee, who hast turned us away from these vanities and given us [grace] to offer to thee the sacrifice of praise."[6]
Charlemagne (r. 768–814) recorded agriculturalOld High German names for the Julian months.[a]These month- and seasonal-names remained in use, with regional variants and innovations, until the end of the Middle Ages acrossGerman-speaking Europe, and they persisted in popular or dialectal use into the 19th century.[b]
The only agreement between the Old English and the Old High German (Carolingian) month names is the naming of April as "Easter month". Both traditions have a "holy month"; however, it is the name of September in the Old English system and of December in the Old High German one.
A separate tradition of month names developed in 10th century Iceland, see#Icelandic calendar.
| Julian month | Old English[8] | Old High German |
|---|---|---|
| January | Æfterra Gēola "AfterYule", or "Second Yule" | Wintar-mánód |
| February | Sol-mōnaþ ('mud month'[c]) | Hornung[d] |
| March | Hrēþ-mōnaþ "Month of the GoddessHrēþ" or "Month of Wildness"[10] | Lenzin-mānod "spring month" |
| April | Easter-mōnaþ "Easter Month", "Month of the GoddessĒostre" or "Month of Dawn"[11] | Ōstar-mānod "Easter month"; see alsoOstara |
| May | Þrimilce-mōnaþ "Month of Three Milkings"[12] | Winni-mánód "pasture month" |
| June | Ærra Līþa "Before Midsummer", or "FirstSummer" | Brāh-mānod "fallow month" |
| — | Þrilīþa "Third (Mid)summer" (leap month) | — |
| July | Æftera Līþa "After Midsummer", "Second Summer" | Hewi-mānod "hay(making) month" |
| August | Wēod-mōnaþ "Weed month" | Aran-mānod "harvest month" |
| September | Hālig-mōnaþ "Holy Month" | Witu-mānod "wood month" |
| October | Winterfylleth "Winter full moon"[e] | Wīndume-mānod "vintage month" |
| November | Blōt-mōnaþ "Blót Month", "Month of Sacrifice" or "Month of bloodshed"[f] | Herbist-mānod "autumn month" |
| December | Ærra Gēola "BeforeYule", or "First Yule" | Hailag-mānod "holy month" |
The Old High German month names introduced by Charlemagne persisted in regional usage and survive in German dialectal usage. The Latin month names were in predominant use throughout the medieval period, although theSummarium Heinrici, an 11th century pedagogical compendium, in chapter II.15 (De temporibus et mensibus et annis) advocates the use of the German month names rather than the more widespread Latin ones.[13]
In the late medieval to early modern period, dialectal or regional month names were adopted for use inalmanacs, and a number of variants or innovations developed, comparable to the tradition of "Indian month names" developed in AmericanFarmers' Almanacs in the early 20th century. Some of theFarmers' Almanacs' "Indian month names" are in fact derived from continental tradition.[g]The Old English month names fell out of use entirely, being revived only in a fictional context in theShire calendar constructed byJ. R. R. Tolkien for use in hisThe Lord of the Rings.
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| Julian month | Old High German | Middle High German | Dutch[h] | West Frisian[17][citation needed] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| January | Wintar-mánód ("winter month") | Wintermonat[i] | louwmaand ("tanning month") | Foarmoanne ("fore month") |
| February | Hornung ("horning") | Hornung[18][j] | sprokkelmaand("month of gathering"),schrikkelmaand ("bissextile month") | Sellemoanne("filthy, unclean month") |
| March | Lenzin-mānod ("spring month") | Lenzmonat ("spring month"),Dörrmonat ("dry month") | lentemaand ("spring month") | Foarjiersmoanne ("spring month") |
| April | Ōstar-mānod ("Easter month") | Ostermonat ("Easter month")[l] | grasmaand ("grass month" ≈Fr.R.Cal.Prairial) | Gersmoanne ("grass month") |
| May | Winni-mānod ("pasture month") | Wonnemonat("month of joy")[n] | wonnemaand("month of joy"),bloeimaand ("flower month" =Fr.R.Cal.Floréal),Mariamaand ("Mary's month") | Blommemoanne ("bloom month") |
| June | Brāh-mānod ("fallow month") | Brachmonat ("fallow month")[o] | zomermaand ("summer month"),braammaand,wedemaand ("woad month"),wiedemaand ("weed month") | Simmermoanne ("summer month") |
| July | Hewi-mānod ("haying month") | Heumonat ("haying month")[p] | vennemaand ("pasture month"),hooimaand ("hay month") | Heamoanne, haaimoanne ("haying month") |
| August | Aran-mānod,MHGarn-mânôt ("harvest month") | Erntemonat ("harvest month") | oogstmaand ("harvest month" ≈Fr.R.Cal.Messidor,[q]koornmaand ("corn month") | Rispmoanne ("harvest month"),flieëmoanne ("flea month") |
| September | Witu-mānod ("wood month") | Herbstmonat ("autumn month")[r] | herfstmaand ("autumn month"),gerstmaand ("barley month"),evenemaand ("oats month") | Hjerstmoanne ("autumn month") |
| October | Wīndume-mānod ("vintage month") | Weinmonat,Weinmond ("vintage month"),[s]Herbstmonat,[26]Gilbhart ("yellowing")[t] | wijnmaand ("wine month"),Wijnoogstmaand ("vintage month" =Fr.R.Cal.Vendémiaire),zaaimaand ("sowing month") | Wynmoanne ("wine month"),bitemoanne("sugar beet month") |
| November | Herbist-mānod ("autumn month") | Wintermonat ("winter month"),[18][u]Herbstmonat[26][v] | slachtmaand ("slaughter month"),bloedmaand ("blood month"),nevelmaand, mistmaand ("fog month" ≈Fr.R.Cal.Brumaire),smeermaand("pork feeding month") | Slachtmoanne ("slaughter month") |
| December | Hailag-mānod ("holy month"), MHGheilmânôt | Christmonat ("Christ month"),Heiligmonat ("holy month")[18][30] | wintermaand ("winter month"),midwintermaand ("Midwinter month"),sneeuwmaand ("snow month" =Fr.R.Cal.Nivôse),Kerstmismaand ("Christmas month"),Joelmaand ("Yule month"),wolfsmaand ("wolves' month"),[30]donkere maand ("dark month") | Wintermoanne ("winter month"),Joelmoanne ("Yule month") |
A special case is the Icelandic calendar, developed in the 10th century. Inspired by the Julian calendar, it introduced a purely solar reckoning with a year, having a fixed number of weeks (52 weeks or 364 days). This necessitated the introduction of "leap weeks" instead of Julian leap days.
The old Icelandic calendar is not in official use anymore, but some Icelandic holidays and annual feasts are still calculated from it. It has 12 months, of 30 days broken down into two groups of six often termed "winter months" and "summer months". The calendar is peculiar in that each month always start on the sameday of week. This was achieved by having 4 epagomenal days to bring the number of days up to 364, and then adding asumarauki week in the middle of summer of some years. This was eventually done so as to ensure that the "summer season" begins on the Thursday between 9 and 15 April in theJulian calendar.[31][full citation needed]HenceÞorri always starts on a Friday sometime between 8 and 15 January of the Julian calendar,Góa always starts on a Sunday between 7 and 14 February of the Julian calendar.
| Skammdegi "Short days" | |||
| 1 | Gormánuður | "slaughter month" or "Gór's month" | mid October – mid November |
| 2 | Ýlir | "Yule month" | mid November – mid December |
| 3 | Mörsugur | "fat sucking month" | mid December – mid January |
| 4 | Þorri | "frozen snow month" | mid January – mid February |
| 5 | Góa | "Góa's month" | mid February – mid March |
| 6 | Einmánuður | "lone month" or "single month" | mid March – mid April |
| Náttleysi "Nightless days" | |||
| 1 | Harpa[w] | (goddess?)[x] | mid April – mid May |
| 2 | Skerpla | (goddess?)[y] | mid May – mid June |
| 3 | Sólmánuður | "sun month" | mid June – mid July |
| 4 | Heyannir | "hay working month" | mid July – mid August |
| 5 | Tvímánuður | "two month" or "second month" | mid August – mid September |
| 6 | Haustmánuður | "autumn month" | mid September – mid October |
Many of the months have also been used in Scandinavia, the Norwegian linguistIvar Aasen wrote down the following months in his dictionary,[32]coming in this order:
Two of the names are identical to Iceland, and other is similar. They have developed differently in different regions.Þorri is pronounced "tærri", "torre" and similar, and can mean both the moon after Yule-month, or be a name for January or February.[33]
translated with introduction, notes, and commentary by Faith Willis
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)Anglo-Saxon paganism and mythology | |
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