The now-extinct title ofEarl of Richmond was created many times in thePeerage ofEngland. The earldom ofRichmond was initially held by variousBreton nobles; sometimes the holder was the Breton duke himself, including one member of the cadet branch of the FrenchCapetian dynasty. The historical ties between theDuchy of Brittany and this English earldom were maintained ceremonially by the Breton dukes even after England ceased to recognize the Breton dukes as earls of England and those dukes rendered homage to the King of France, rather than the English crown. It was then held either by members of the English royal families of Plantagenet and Tudor, or English nobles closely associated with the English crown. It was eventually merged into the English crown during the reign ofHenry VII of England and has been recreated as aDukedom.
The title Earl of Richmond is associated with the now extinct earldom, the earlier lords of Richmond who held theHonour of Richmond, one of the most important fiefs in England,[1] and eventually the dukes of Richmond. The title of earl predates the French-Breton-Norman title of count (comte), but the two became interchangeable in the time of William the Conqueror.
From their first creation, the lords and earls of Richmond were leading members of theruling class of post-Conquest England, as defined by Keats-Rohan as "[those holding fiefs, (the right to collect fees)] held in some relationship in the feudal chain from the king of England, whether the holder be Norman, Breton, Manceau, Poitevin, Fleming or Anglo-Saxon."[a] "[2] In William I's Conquest of England in fact "the regional origin of [the Conquerors] ...was not exclusively Norman, ... and the size of the Breton contingent ... is generally agreed to be the most significant."[3] Until the late 12th century, all the earls of Richmond were Breton noblemen.
The Earldom of Richmond was frequently associated with the accumulation of great wealth within England.
The earl was frequently known in the courts of the kings of France and the dukes of Brittany ascomte de Richemont[b] or other spelling variations, where in the courts of England and Brittany, French was frequently used.
TheHonour of Richmond preceded the Earldom of Richmond. The Honour conveyed, among other things, economic rights to the holder. The Honour of Richmond was reputed to be among the wealthiest in England. It appears to have been in existence in England from 1071 shortly after theHarrying of the North, a military campaign which followed the Battle of Hastings (1066). This was before the title Earl of Richmond was held in accordance with any strict legal principle.[4] It was initially awarded to Breton nobles from the ducal family of Brittany by the king of England.[5] It represented, among other things, the close association of England and Brittany.
Early holders of the honour of Richmond were sometimes known as lords of Richmond rather than as earls. The Honour of Richmond and the title Earl of Richmond, were held principally by Breton nobles, and often by the duke of Brittany, except for two periods from 1241 to 1268 and from 1286 to 1372. In 1435 the title was granted to the House of Plantagenet, before theDuchy of Brittany was permanently annexed to the crown of France. The title was definitively returned to crown during the reign of the Tudor kings. It was first granted toAlan Rufus in 1071 by William the Conqueror.[c] The honour, which was assessed for the service of 60 knights, was one of the most important fiefs in Norman England.[5][d][e]
The 1st Earl of Richmond was the Breton warriorAlan Rufus (c. 1040–1093).[f] He was related to both the duke of Normandy and theduke of Brittany. He was a grandson of DukeGeoffrey I of Brittany andHawise of Normandy and the second son ofOdo, Count of Penthièvre. He most probably took part inWilliam the Conqueror's invasion of England, after which he obtained grants of land in various parts of England, including manors formerly held byEarl Edwin inYorkshire.[4] Alan Rufus would be the first of as many as four brothers to constitute the Breton Richmond-Penthievre family in England. He built theRichmond Castle inRichmond. As he was William the Conqueror's double second cousin, Keats-Rohan would describe him a member of the English nobility, that is the holder of a fief who are also a member of a kin-group,[2] albeit a member of the Breton contingents within William's conquering army. The Bretons within William's army were composed of three groups, and at one time one of those contingents, led byRalph de Gael revolted; as Lord of Richmond, Alan's lands would be expanded by some of those forfeited by Ralph. This is taken by historians as symbolic of the loyalty that Alan Rufus displayed to William,[6] and from this time Richmond would remain in the hands of the most loyal of English kings' nobles and also represent a means for the King to allocate wealth to his closest "kin-group" in the sense defined by Keats-Rohan. Alan Rufus emerged as the wealthiest and most important of the Breton nobles around William I, was a key supporter ofWilliam II in the events preceding, during and following theRebellion of 1088 and may have participated in the invasion of Normandy in 1091.
Alan Rufus died on 4 August 1093 due to an unknown cause. His succession settled quickly upon his younger brother, another Alan, nicknamed "Niger" (The Black), who seems to have died by 1098.Stephen, their younger brother, inherited Richmond. Stephen died between 1135 and 1138, and was succeeded in Brittany by his eldest son, Geoffrey Boterel II, a supporter of theEmpress Matilda, and in England by a younger son,Alan, also nicknamedThe Black,[g] who was an ally of King Stephen duringThe Anarchy.
The Penthièvre brothers who held the territorial designation as Lords of Richmond are often reckoned as de facto 'earls of Richmond', though they were not so in the later strictly legal sense. Through the reign ofKing Henry I few earldoms had been created.King Stephen's reign was marked by the creation of several new earldoms.
Stephen of Tréguier's sonAlan (c. 1116–1146), was the first of these lords to be styled "Earl of Richmond" in a strictly legal sense. King Stephen also created Alan 1stEarl of Cornwall although this title would be forfeit in 1141 after the Battle of Lincoln.Alan of Brittany is recorded as riding at King Stephen's side in theBattle of Lincoln. Alan Rufus, Stephen of Tréguier, and Alan were members of "the Richmond-Penthievre... [family, and this family]... maintained its rivalry with its ducal cousins [in Brittany] into the next century".[6][h]
Alan married Bertha, daughter and heiress of DukeConan III of Brittany. Alan died in 1146 at which time his widow returned to Brittany. Their son, DukeConan IV of Brittany (c. 1138–1171) marriedMargaret of Huntingdon, sister of KingMalcolm IV of Scotland. Conan asserted his right to Brittany, and with it Richmond; he transferred the title Earl of Richmond during his lifetime to his daughterConstance (c. 1161–1201).[4]
Constance married three times, and each of her husbands in turn assumed the title of earl of Richmondjure uxeris, in conjunction with that ofDuke of Brittany (alsojure uxeris). They were:Geoffrey Plantagenet (1158–1186), son ofHenry II of England;Ranulph de Blondeville,Earl of Chester (c. 1172–1232) ;[i] andGuy de Thouars (d. 1213), who survived his wife for twelve years. The only son of the first marriage,Arthur (1187–1203), was styled Earl of Richmond in his mother's lifetime. On his likely murder at the hands of his uncle,King John (John Lackland [English] or Jean sans Terres [French]), the earldom's possession was disputed.[4] Arthur's legal heir, his full elder sister,Eleanor, is sometimes considered to have succeeded him as Countess of Richmond in 1208, but due to her claims to England, Brittany, Anjou and Aquitaine, King John kept her imprisoned from 1202 and gave her no lands of the earldom.
To complicate matters, Constance of Brittany had two daughters by her third marriage, the elder of whom,Alix, was proclaimed Duchess of Brittany by the Breton lords and given in marriage toPeter Mauclerc by KingPhilip II of France, in 1213. Alix used the titleCountess of Richmond from 1203 to her death in 1221.[7] As a result of his marriage to Alix, Pierre was styled Duke of Brittany and Earl of Richmond, but the latter title was only officially proclaimed in 1218, during the reign ofHenry III, while Eleanor was apparently deprived of her last title. Peter Mauclerc was the founder of the Breton House of Dreux. The title would continue in the House of Dreux for some time, although from time to time, it was forfeited, or it reverted to the crown. About 1235 Peter Mauclerc renounced his allegiance to England, and consequently suffered forfeiture of his English estates. Despite some better treatments including the grant of the Swaffham manor, the title and other lands of the earldom were however not restored to Eleanor, who remained confined until her death in 1241;William of Savoy was granted Honour of Richmond in 1236.
In 1241 Henry III granted the estates of Richmond toPeter of Savoy (1203–1268), uncle of his queen consort,Eleanor of Provence. Peter was thereafter described as Earl of Richmond by contemporary chroniclers. By his will, Savoy left Richmond to his niece, Eleanor, who transferred it to the crown. That year, 1268, Henry III granted the earldom toJohn I, Duke of Brittany (1217–1286), son of Pierre Mauclerc.[4] The title was recreated for John I's heir,John II, Duke of Brittany. In 1306 the title was granted to his sonJohn of Brittany who entered into the service of Edward I and Edward II of England. As an earl, John of Brittany was particularly inattentive to English politics. He had a distinguished record as a diplomat working on behalf of these Kings of England and was a frequent warrior in their military quests, both on the continent and in Britain. Upon John of Brittany's death, the title passed to his nephew,John III, Duke of Brittany.
The earldom was then passed toJohn of Montfort, John III's half-brother. John III had no issue and upon his death the inheritance of the Duchy of Brittany became disputed. John III's nieceJoan of Penthievre claimed the duchy without apparently claiming to be hereditary countess of Richmond. John III's half-brother, John of Montfort, disputed Joan's claim to the duchy and their dispute was initially adjudicated by the French king in a court of peers in Conflans, France. In that adjudication,Charles of Blois, Joanna's husband, gained recognition as Duke of Brittany and John of Montfort fled. TheBreton War of Succession ensued. The French king's adjudication raised the question of whether the Duke of Brittany and separately the Earl of Richmond, whether one and the same or not, owed homage to the French king as vassal. John of Montfort fled Conflans in order to regain his troops who occupied many fortified castles in a line from Nantes to Brittany. The French king raised an army to defend the interests of Charles of Blois and seized the county of Montfort from John of Montfort. The king then proposed to Jean de Montfort that he would permit him to retain the Earldom of Richmond if John accepted the adjudication of Conflans and returned to the French court as a loyal vassal.[j] Edward III reacted by supporting Jean de Montfort.
In 1342, the title reverted toEdward III and would remain for a time behind the "shield of England" as the competing claims of the French and English crowns were played out, first in the Breton War of Succession and then across the Hundred Years' War. Edward III granted the Earldom to his sonJohn of Gaunt, who then surrendered it in 1372. The earldom was then given to DukeJohn V of Brittany, but on his death or possibly at an earlier date through forfeiture, it reverted to the crown and was to remain behind the "shield of England" and away from any attempts of the French crown to acquire it and the related properties.[k]
From 1414 to 1435 the earldom of Richmond was held byJohn Plantagenet,Duke of Bedford. In 1453 it was conferred onEdmund Tudor, half-brother toKing Henry VI. When Edmund's son Henry ascended the throne asHenry VII in 1485, the earldom of Richmond merged in the crown, and for the next forty years there was no further grant of the title.[4][l][m] After Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, became King Henry VII of England, the titleDuke of Richmond was created by the Tudor Dynasty, and over time generally overtook the use of the title Earl of Richmond. The earldom has not been recreated since.
There was a close association with theDuchy of Brittany from the inception of thehonours and titles associated with Richmond until the reign ofJohn V. After John V, the English crown ceased to recognize the Breton rulers as Earls of Richmond and the crown frequently assigned theHonour of Richmond to English nobles. In Brittany, the Dukes who succeeded John V continued to use the title Earl of Richmond, or in French,Comte de Richemont.Francis II was the last Duke of Brittany associated with the courtesy title. He waived all rights to holdings in England and assigned them to Henry Tudor, in advance of Henry's armed invasion of England. After Henry's attainment of the English throne, the Earl of Richmond and the Honour of Richmond were merged with the English crown.
Edmund Tudor had been educated by Catherine de la Pole, the Abbess of Barking, who brought him to Henry VI's attention. Upon attaining adulthood, Edmund joined Henry VI at court. In 1449 Henry VI knighted him and then circa 1452 summoned Edmund to parliament as the Earl of Richmond. He had one son, Henry VII who was born posthumously circa 1456.[8]
Alan Rufus, first Earl of RichmondHenry Tudor (Henry VII), last Earl of RichmondTheheraldic badge of Richmond Herald of Arms in Ordinary held by the herald toHenry Tudor, Earl of Richmond
Conan IV, Duke of Brittany (d.1171) – son of Alan the Black and Bertha of Brittany; the firstDuke of Brittany to hold the title directly; the Earldom was seized in 1158 byHenry II of England after Conan seized the County of Nantes and it was returned to Conan when the latter returned the County of Nantes to Henry II. The latter acted as a regent when Conan abdicated in favour of his daughter Constance of Brittany and would later confer the title on his son Geoffrey in connection with his marriage to Constance.
Guy of Thouars – Earl of Richmondjure uxoris (1199–1201).
Arthur I, Duke of Brittany (1196–1203) – son of Geoffrey and Constance; succeeded his mother in her lifetime. Imprisoned by his uncle King John of England (Jean sans Terres) since 1202, disappeared in 1203 and viewed as having died in 1208. The circumstances of Arthur's death were a factor in the rebellions that culminated in French royal intervention and King John's consequent loss of the continental empire that had been assiduously constructed by his father King Henry II.
Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany – Titular Hereditary Countess of Richmond. She was Constance's daughter and Arthur's sister. She was considered by some to have succeeded to the Earldom as the 5th Countess of Richmond. Imprisoned initially by King John of England (Jean sans Terres) and then his successor KingHenry III. John gave her no lands of the earldom. She died 1241 after a lifetime of imprisonment since 1202. During her life imprisonment, John I had offered the Earldom toPeter Mauclerc, who declined the offer but was still recognized as Earl of Richmond in 1218 under William Marshal regent of Henry III, by which time Eleanor ceased to be styled as countess. Meanwhile, Henry III had a law passed in England that prevented Eleanor from any English inheritances to the crown. She never regained Richmond even after Peter later forfeited it in 1235.
Alix, Duchess of Brittany (1203–1221) – daughter of Constance and Guy of Thouars. She succeeded her half-brother. Although her half-sister Eleanor used the titleCountess of Richmond in the same time, Alix made charters about this estate and used the title from 1203 to her death in 1221.
Peter I, Duke of Brittany (1213–1218) – Earl of Richmondjure uxoris. Alix was Countess of Richmond from 1203 to 1221.
Peter I of Brittany (1190–1250), forfeit 1235 – the husband of Alix of Thouars, the heiress of Constance of Brittany; Peter also ruled as Duke of Brittanyjure uxoris, and later as regent of Brittany. He was a member of the House of Dreux and was known at various times in his life asPierre deDreux,Pierre Mauclerc[r] andPierre deBraine[s].King John offered him the earldom in his own right, but Peter declined because of his links to the King of France. However, in 1218 he was still recognized as Earl of Richmond byWilliam Marshal regent of John I's son,Henry III. He forfeited any rights to the Earldom during the reign of Henry III.
John of Dreux, Earl of Richmond (1239–1305) – eventually, Duke John II of Brittany; married toHenry III's daughterBeatrice; this marriage was meant to bring the Earl of Richmond under the "shield of England" during the reign of Henry III when tensions rose with France; John de Dreux would become Duke of Brittany after Beatrice's death. Beatrice, therefore, never became Duchess of Brittany.
John of Brittany, Earl of Richmond (1266–1334) – received his title from his fatherJohn II, Duke of Brittany in 1306 and entered intoEdward I's service; lost his lands in 1325 for a time when he allied himself with Queen Isabella to force the abdication of her husband Edward II in favour of her son Edward III; his lands were restored byEdward III.
John III, Duke of Brittany (1286–1341) – received this title in 1334 upon John of Brittany's death after he had inherited the Duchy of Brittany in 1312 upon the death ofArthur II, Duke of Brittany; he was John of Brittany's nephew and the eldest son ofArthur II and a grandson ofJohn II.
Robert of Artois (1287–1342), received the earldom as a reward for service and loyalty toEdward III of England during the first four years of theHundred Years War. His claims was at the expense ofJohn of Montfort, the pro-English claimant to the duchy of Brittany. John was compensated with theHonour of Richmond, the first time the title was separated from the land it represented. Robert only held the title for a year before dying in support of Montfort nearVannes during theBreton War of Succession.[11]
From 1341, the title and honour were separated permanently. Members of the Montfort family of Brittany regained the honour in 1372, lost and regained it in 1381, lost it again in 1384, regained it briefly in 1420, but lost it permanently in 1425 when Arthur, second son of John IV of Brittany, joined the French side and becameconstable of France in the final phase of the Hundred Years War. The family continued to use the title until the merger of the line into the French royal family in 1547.
John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford (1389–1435) – created earl by his brotherHenry V in 1414. John died without legitimate issue in 1435, and his title and honours as Earl of Richmond reverted to the crown during the reign of Henry VI.
George Gordon 1st Duke of Gordon, Viscount of Inverness, and Lord Strathaven, Balmore, Auchindoun, Garthie and Kincardine, 4th Marquess of Huntly, Earl of Enzie, and Lord Gordon of Badenoch, 9th Earl of Huntly
Charles Lennox (1672–1723) 1st Duke of Richmond, Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny, Earl of March, Earl of Darnley, Baron Settrington, and Lord Torbolton
Alexander Gordon (1720–1752) 2nd Duke of Gordon, Viscount of Inverness, and Lord Strathaven, Balmore, Auchindoun, Garthie and Kincardine, 5th Marquess of Huntly, Earl of Enzie, and Lord Gordon of Badenoch, 10th Earl of Huntly
Charles Lennox (1701–1750) 2nd Duke of Richmond, Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny, Earl of March, Earl of Darnley, Baron Settrington, and Lord Torbolton
John Gordon (d. 1732) 3rd Earl of Aboyne and Lord Gordon of Strathavon and Glenlivet
Cosmo George Gordon (1720–1752) 3rd Duke of Gordon, Viscount of Inverness, and Lord Strathaven, Balmore, Auchindoun, Garthie and Kincardine, 6th Marquess of Huntly, Earl of Enzie, and Lord Gordon of Badenoch, 11th Earl of Huntly
Charles Lennox (1735–1806) 3rd Duke of Richmond, Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny, Earl of March, Earl of Darnley, Baron Settrington, and Lord Torbolton
Alexander Gordon (1743–1827) 4th Duke of Gordon, Viscount of Inverness, and Lord Strathaven, Balmore, Auchindoun, Garthie and Kincardine, 7th Marquess of Huntly, Earl of Enzie, and Lord Gordon of Badenoch, 12th Earl of Huntly, 1stEarl of Norwich
George Duncan Gordon (1770–1836) 5th Duke of Gordon, Viscount of Inverness, and Lord Strathaven, Balmore, Auchindoun, Garthie and Kincardine, 8th Marquess of Huntly, Earl of Enzie, and Lord Gordon of Badenoch, 13th Earl of Huntly, 5th Earl of Enzie, 2ndEarl of Norwich
Charles Lennox (1764–1819) 4th Duke of Richmond, Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny, and Earl of March
George Gordon (1761–1853) 9th Marquess of Huntly, 14th Earl of Huntly, 5th Earl of Aboyne and Lord Gordon of Strathavon and Glenlivet, 1st Baron Meldrum
Dukedom of Gordon (1st creation), Viscountcy of Inverness, and Lord Strathaven, Balmore, Auchindoun, Garthie and Kincardine, Earldom of Norwich (4th creation), Earldom of Enzie extinct, 1836
Charles Gordon-Lennox (1791–1860) 5th Duke of Richmond, Duke of Lennox, Duke of Aubigny, Earl of March
Charles Gordon (1792–1863) 10th Marquess of Huntly, 15th Earl of Huntly, 6th Earl of Aboyne and Lord Gordon of Strathavon and Glenlivet, 2nd Baron Meldrum
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox (1818–1903) 6th Duke of Richmond, 6th Duke of Lennox, 1st Duke of Gordon and Earl of Kinrara, 6th Duke of Aubigny, 6th Earl of March
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox (1845–1928) 7th Duke of Richmond, 7th Duke of Lennox, 2nd Duke of Gordon and Earl of Kinrara, 7th Duke of Aubigny, 7th Earl of March
Charles Gordon (1847–1937) 11th Marquess of Huntly, 16th Earl of Huntly, 7th Earl of Aboyne and Lord Gordon of Strathavon and Glenlivet, 3rd Baron Meldrum
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox (1870–1935) 8th Duke of Richmond, 8th Duke of Lennox, 8th Duke of Aubigny, 3rd Duke of Gordon and Earl of Kinrara, 8th Earl of March
Frederick Charles Gordon-Lennox (1904–1989) 9th Duke of Richmond, 9th Duke of Lennox, 9th Duke of Aubigny, 4th Duke of Gordon and Earl of Kinrara, 9th Earl of March
Douglas Charles Lindsey Gordon (1908–1987) 12th Marquess of Huntly, 18th Earl of Huntly, 8th Earl of Aboyne and Lord Gordon of Strathavon and Glenlivet, 4th Baron Meldrum
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox (1929–2017) 10th Duke of Richmond, 10th Duke of Lennox, 10th Duke of Aubigny, 5th Duke of Gordon and Earl of Kinrara, 10th Earl of March
^These various groups, according to Keats-Rohan, constituted the principal groups within his Conquest forces. The actual array of groups is more diverse, notes Keats-Rohan, than the general label "Norman" might imply.
^Orcomte de Richmond or, for a femalesuo jure holder of the title, such asAnne of Brittany,comtesse de Richemont.
^According to Butler, Rufus was a count, and the honour represented an assessment of 60 knights. According to Keats-Rohan, the Honour was likely awarded after theHarrying of the North
^The honour of Richmond would sometimes be separated from the earldom, but only for brief periods of time.
^It would be the Penthievre line of Breton nobility who would finally attempt to claim the ducal crown of Brittany. This disputed claim would lead to theBreton War of Succession, a contest with the House of Montfort that would include the loss of the rights and properties associated with the Earldom of Richmond by the Montfortists. (See John of Montfort in the list of Earls of Richmond.) After the House of Penthievre was precluded by the Treaty of Guerande from the ducal crown, they would continue their rivalry with their ducal cousins until their rights were seized and their title and properties were merged into theDuchy.
^ Constance treated this marriage as null on the ground of consanguinity
^In a French translation of a report of the incidents reported in latin: The French king, in addressing John of Montfort added thaten indemnité de la perte de Montfort, il concède ... le comté de Richemont, avec cette condition pourtant que, si le comte recouvrait Montfort, il rendrait Richemont, sauf, dit l'acte, une nouvelle et plus grande faveur, qu'en raison de la continuation et de l'augmentation de ses bons services envers nous, le comte peut espérer de l'excès de la munificence royale See the writings of Dom Morice, Pr I, 1424
^The earldom was now used as a titulary both succeedingdukes of Brittany until the duchy was permanently merged into the French crown; the actual earldom and its related honour would subsequently be held by English appointees before it was merged into the English crown.
^George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence was also understood to be Earl of Richmond, among his other titles. This is under review for this article.
^An associated office was that ofRichmond Herald. From 1421 to 1485 the Richmond Herald served John, Duke of Bedford, George, Duke of Clarence, and Henry, Earl of Richmond, all of whom held the Honour (estate) of Richmond.
^ In Brittany family names are often descriptive of a role in life or the place of birth or one's holdings as a local Lord. The Breton the maiden name of Charles Lennox's mother is descriptive in this sense. "Ker" means place or farm or city and so Kerouaille is meant to designate a region of Brittany near Brest tied to her family. "Pen" means highest, and "Coet" means woods or forests, with "an" usually meaning "the"; thus Penancoët loosely translates to "chief of the woods."
^Although she was heiress of the Earldom of Richmond at her father's death in 1171, Constance did not enter her inheritance until 1183/1184 (see Judith Everard and Michael Jones,The Charters of Duchess Constance and Her Family (1171–1221), p 38)
^"From Michaelmas 1183, Geoffrey was also in possession of the honour of Richmond", Judith Everard and Michael Jones,The Charters of Duchess Constance and Her Family (1171–1221), p 1
^Although he married Constance, Ranulph never ruled as Duke of Brittany and Earl of Richmond.
^Mauclerc is meant to be understood as "bad clerk" from the older French version ofmauvais clerc.
^A name for Peter that became popular after his service as regent came to an end.
^He surrendered the Earldom among other British rights and holdings in order to pursue his claim to theCrown of Castile
Butler, Lawrence (2003). "The origins of the honour of Richmond and its castles". In Robert Liddiard (ed.).Anglo Norman Castles. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press.ISBN0-85115-904-4.
Froissart, John (1806).Sir John Froissart's Chronicles of England, France, Spain, and the Adjoining Countries. Vol. II. London: Longman, et al.
