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Dyeing is the application ofdyes orpigments ontextile materials such asfibers,yarns, andfabrics with the goal of achieving color with desiredcolor fastness. Dyeing is normally done in a specialsolution containingdyes and particular chemical material. Dyemolecules are fixed to the fiber by absorption, diffusion, or bonding with temperature and time being key controlling factors. The bond between the dye molecule and fiber may be strong or weak, depending on the dye used. Dyeing and printing are different applications; in printing, color is applied to a localized area with desired patterns. In dyeing, it is applied to the entire textile.
The primary source of dye, historically, has beennature, with the dyes being extracted fromplants oranimals. Since the mid-19th century, however, humans have produced artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of colors and to render the dyes more stable for washing and general use. Different classes of dyes are used for different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile production process, from loose fibers throughyarn and cloth to complete garments.
Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, whilenylon and protein fibers such aswool andsilk are dyed withacid dyes, andpolyester yarn is dyed withdispersed dyes.Cotton is dyed with a range of dye types, includingvat dyes, and modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes.
The word 'dye' (/ˈdaɪ/,DIE) comes from theMiddle English'deie', and from theOld English'dag' and'dah'.[1] The first known use of the word 'dye' was before the 12th century.[2]
The earliest dyedflax fibers have been found in a prehistoric cave inGeorgia and dates back to 34,000 BC.[3][4]More evidence oftextile dyeing dates back to theNeolithic period at the largeNeolithic settlement atÇatalhöyük in southernAnatolia, where traces of red dyes, possibly fromocher, aniron oxidepigment derived fromclay, were found.[5] InChina, dyeing with plants,barks, andinsects has been traced back more than 5,000 years.[6]: 11 Early evidence of dyeing comes fromSindh province inAncient India modern dayPakistan, where a piece of cotton dyed with a vegetable dye was recovered from the archaeological site atMohenjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE).[7] The dye used in this case wasmadder, which, along with other dyes such asindigo, was introduced to other regions through trade.[7] Natural insect dyes such asCochineal andkermes and plant-based dyes such aswoad, indigo and madder were important elements of the economies of Asia and Europe until the discovery of man-madesynthetic dyes in the mid-19th century. The first synthetic dye wasWilliam Perkin'smauveine in 1856, derived fromcoal tar.Alizarin, the red dye present in madder, was the first natural pigment to be duplicated synthetically in 1869,[8] a development which led to the collapse of the market for naturally grown madder.[6]: 65 The development of new, strongly colored synthetic dyes followed quickly, and by the 1870s commercial dyeing with natural dyestuffs was disappearing. An important characteristic waslight-fastness - resistance to fading when exposed to sunlight using industrial techniques such as those developed byJames Morton.
Dyeing can be applied at various stages within thetextile manufacturing process; for example, fibers may be dyed before being spun into yarns, and yarns may be dyed before being woven into fabrics. Fabrics and sometimes finished garments themselves may also be dyed.[9] The stage at which a product is dyed varies depending on its intended end use, the cost to the manufacturer, its desired appearance, and the resources available, amongst other reasons. There are specific terms to describe these dyeing methods, such as:
There are various terms used in the manufacturing and marketing industries depending on the method used to dye the substrate. For example, "stock dyed" refers to dyeing the fibers before making the yarn, "yarn dyed" refers to dyeing the yarns before producing fabrics, and "piece dyed" or "fabric dyed" refers to dyeing the yarns after they are converted into fabric. The fastness of fiber- and yarn-dyed materials is superior to that of fabrics.[16]
The primary objective of the dyeing process is to achieve uniform color application in accordance with a predetermined color matching standard or reference on thesubstrate,[17] which may be a fiber, yarn, or fabric, while meeting specifiedcolour fastness requirements. Tie-dye and printing are the methods where the color is applied in a localized manner.[18]
In the exhaust method, the dye is transported to the substrate by the dye liquor's motion. The dye is adsorbed onto the fibre surface and ideally diffuses into the whole of the fibre. Water consumption in exhaust application is higher than the continuous dyeing method.[18] There are three corresponding ways of dyeing with the exhaust method.
In continuous method dye is transported to the substrate by passing it through the different stages but continuously.[18] The continuous method is an innovative method where many discrete dyeing stages are combined, such as applying color, fixation and, washing off of unfixed dyes.[19][20] Types of continuous dyeing are as follows
Cold pad batch method is a semi-continuous dyeing process.[21][22]
Waterless dyeing, also known as dry dyeing, is the newly developed and more sustainable dyeing method in which the dyes are applied to the substrate with the help ofcarbon dioxide or solutions that need less or no water compared to their counterparts.[23][24][25]
The selection of the appropriatedyes is most important because any given dye does not apply to every type offiber. Dyes are classified according to many parameters, such as chemical structure, affinity, application method, desiredcolour fastness i.e. resistance to washing, rubbing, and light.[18] The properties may vary with different dyes. The selection of dye depends on the objective in dyeing and affinity (to which material is to be dyed). Fastness ofcolor largely depends upon the molecular size of the dyes and the solubility. Larger molecular size serves better washing fastness results.[26]
Indigo dyes have a poor wash and rubbing fastness on denim (cotton), so they are used to produce washed-down effects on fabrics. In contrast,vat orreactive dyes are applied to cotton to achieve excellent washing fastness.
The next important criterion for selecting dyes is the assessment of hazards to human health and theenvironment. There are many dyes especiallydisperse dyes that may cause allergic reactions to some individuals,[27] and the negative impact on the environment.[28] There are national and international standards andregulations which need to comply.
The term "direct dye application" stems from some dyestuff having to be either fermented as in the case of some natural dye or chemicallyreduced as in the case of synthetic vat and sulfur dyes before being applied. This renders the dye soluble so that it can be absorbed by the fiber since the insoluble dye has very little substantivity to the fiber. Direct dyes, a class of dyes largely for dyeing cotton, are water-soluble and can be applied directly to the fiber from an aqueous solution. Most other classes of synthetic dye, other than vat and surface dyes, are also applied in this way.
The term may also be applied to dyeing without the use ofmordants to fix the dye once it is applied. Mordants were often required to alter the hue and intensity of natural dyes and improvecolor fastness.Chromium salts were until recently extensively used in dyeing wool with synthetic mordant dyes. These were used for economical high color fastness dark shades such asblack andnavy. Environmental concerns have now restricted their use, and they have been replaced with reactive and metal complex dyes that do not require mordant.
There are many forms ofyarn dyeing. Common forms are the package form and the hanks form. Cotton yarns are mostly dyed at package form, and acrylic or wool yarn are dyed at hank form. In the continuous filament industry, polyester or polyamide yarns are always dyed at package form, while viscose rayon yarns are partly dyed at hank form because of technology.[29]
The common dyeing process of cotton yarn with reactive dyes at package form is as follows:
After this process, the dyed yarn packages are packed and delivered.
Space dyeing is a technique of localized color application that produces a unique multicolored effect.[30][31]
Garment dyeing is the process of dyeing fully fashioned garments subsequent to manufacturing, as opposed to the conventional method of manufacturing garments from pre-dyed fabrics.
Up until the mid-1970s the method was rarely used for commercial clothing production. It was used domestically, to overdye old, worn and faded clothes, and also by resellers of used or surplus military clothing. The first notable industrial use of the technique was made byBenetton, which garment dyed its Shetland wool knitwear.
In the mid-1970s theBologna clothing designerMassimo Osti began experimenting with the garment dyeing technique. His experimentation over the next decade, led to the pioneering of not just the industrial use of traditional garment dyeing (dyeing simple cotton or wool garments) but, more importantly, the technique of “complex garment dyeing” which involved dyeing fully fashioned garments which had been constructed from multiple fabric or fiber types (e.g. a jacket made from both nylon and cotton, or linen, nylon and polyurethane coated cotton) in the same bath.
Up until its development by Osti (for his clothing brandC.P. Company), this technique had never been successfully industrially applied in any context. The complexity lay in developing both a practical and chemical understanding of how each fabric responded differently to the dye, how much it would shrink, how much color it would absorb, developing entirely new forms of quality control to verify possible defects in fabric before dyeing etc.
Beyond the industrial advantages of the technique (purchasing fabric in one color, white or natural, you may produce as many colors as you wish etc.), the artistic advantages of the technique were considerable and in many ways paved the way for the creation of the clothing style today known as Italian Sportswear. These advantages included
The disadvantages included:
Today, whilst garment dyeing is a diffusely employed as an industrial technique around the globe, predominantly in the production of vintage style cotton garments and byfast fashion suppliers, complex garment dyeing is still practiced almost exclusively in Italy, by a handful of premium brands and suppliers who remain committed to the art.
There are several terms associated with the process of dyeing:
Affinity refers to the chemical attraction between two elements or substances, leading to their inclination to unite or combine, as observed between fiber and dyestuff.[32]: 4 [33]
Materials that exhibit bleeding tendencies may lead to the staining of white or light-colored fabrics in contact with them while in a wet state. The phenomenon of color fading from a fabric or yarn upon immersion in water, solvent, or a comparable liquid medium, arises due to inadequate dyeing or the utilization of inferior quality dyes.[32]: 16 [34]
Fabric can experience undesired color absorption, resulting in staining, when exposed to water, dry-cleaning solvent, or similar liquids containing unintended dyestuffs or coloring materials. Additionally, direct contact with other dyed materials may cause color transfer through bleeding or sublimation.[32]: 150 [35]
Stripping is a method used to partially or entirely remove color from dyed textile materials. It can also be utilized as a reprocessing technique to correct imperfect dyeing.[36]
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