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Dvaita Vedanta (/ˈdvaɪtəveɪˈdɑːntə/); (originally known asTattvavada;IAST:Tattvavāda), is a sub-school in theVedanta tradition ofHindu philosophy. The term Tattvavada literally means "arguments from a realist viewpoint". The Tattvavada (Dvaita) Vedanta sub-school was founded by the 13th-centuryIndian philosopher-saintMadhvacharya.[1] Madhvacharya believed in three entities:God,jiva (soul), andjada (maya, matter).[2] The Dvaita Vedanta believes thatGod and the individual souls (jīvātman) exist as distinct realities. These individualsouls are dependent (paratantra) onVishnu (Narayana), who alone is independent (svatantra).
The Dvaita school contrasts with the other two major sub-schools of Vedanta, theAdvaita Vedanta ofAdi Shankara which positsnondualism—that ultimate reality (Brahman) and human soul (Ātman) are identical and all reality is interconnected oneness, andVishishtadvaita ofRamanuja which posits qualified nondualism—that ultimate reality (Brahman) and human soul are different but with the potential to be identical.[3][4]Sanyasis of the Dvaita Vedanta tradition belong to theēkadaṇḍi order.[5]
Dvaita (द्वैत) is aSanskrit word that means "duality, dualism".[6] The term refers to any premise, particularly in theology on the material and the divine, where two principles (truths) or realities are posited to exist simultaneously and independently.[6][1]. While dualism generally entails a division between good and evil, Madhvacharya classifies reality into two based on independence and dependence:
IndologistB. N. Krishnamurti Sharma says: "The English termDualism is inadequate to express the full content and depth of meaning thatMadhva has put into the termDvaita, as it is to be implied to his system. Even the Sanskrit wordDvaita is not literally capable of expressing more than the fundamental principles accepted.[7][8] B. N. K. Sharma suggested the termSvatantra-Advitiya-Brahmavāda as an alternative name for Madhva's system, explaining that it emphasizes both the transcendence and immanence of Brahman, directly conveying what Madhva and his commentators likeJayatirtha often stress: the unique supremacy of God (the infinite) alongside the dependent reality of souls and matter (the finite). Sharma says,Satyadhyana Tirtha ofUttaradi Math approved this terminology and would be terminologically balanced with other Vēdantic systems likeNirviśeṣādvaita,Śuddhādvaita, andViśiṣṭādvaita.[7]
Quoting the termAdvitīyatva, Sharma notes that Madhva, in his Chandogya Bhashya, interprets it as denoting the "absence of peer and superior" to Brahman. This interpretation implicitly affirms the existence of "lesser reals", individual souls and matters, subordinate to God's sovereignty. Sharma further states that verses like "नेह नानास्ति किंचना are understood as negating some internal distinctions (nānātva) in Brahman. The only internal distinctions that are logically conceivable in Brahman, are those of attributes. The adjunctSvatantra would thus serve to emphasize thetranscendence of the supreme over the other reals and its immanence in them and show how the conception of Brahman, here, differs from theNirviśeṣādvaita ofAdi Shankara. It would also lay direct emphasis on the primacy of the supreme as thePara-Siddhanta of the Madhva's thought, and put the teachings about the finite in their proper place as constituting theApara-Siddhānta (subsidiary truths)".[7]
Aluru Venkata Rao opines that the termDvaita is not suitable for Madhva's philosophy, hence it should not be used.[9] Instead, he suggests to use the termPūrnabrahmavāda.[10]
Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of theVedas systematized by the 13th-centuryIndian philosopher-saintMadhvacharya, theorizing the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality (svatantra-tattva), isVishnu as the ultimate reality (Brahman) andSupreme God.[11] Vishnu is the supremeSelf, in a manner similar to themonotheistic God in other major religions.[12] He is believed to be almighty, eternal,[13] always existing, everlasting, all-knowing, and compassionate.[14] The second reality is that of dependent (asvatantra-tattva orparatantra) but equally real universe that exists with its own separate essence. Everything that is composed of the second reality, such as individual soul, matter, and the like exist with their own separate reality. The distinguishing factor of this philosophy, as opposed to monisticAdvaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.[15]
LikeRamanuja, for Madhvacharya too, Vishnu is the One Independent Supreme principle. But this is not sectarian; For Madhva, words like "Narayana", "Vishnu", etc, when etymologically derived, give the meaning of transcendence, immanence, abode of infinite auspicious attributes,infinite bliss, etc. Madhvacharya posits God as beingpersonal andsaguna, that is endowed with attributes and qualities (in human terms, which are not believed to be able to fully describe God).[16] To Madhvacharya, the metaphysical concept of Brahman in theVedas was Vishnu. He stated: "Brahmaśabdaśca Viṣṇaveva", thatBrahman can only refer toVishnu. Scriptures which say different are declared as non-authoritative by him.[17] For Madhvacharya, Vishnu was not just any otherdeva, but rather the one and onlySupreme Being.[18][2] According to him, the devas are souls of deceased persons who were rewarded for good deeds by beingreincarnated into the heavenly worlds and carrying out the will of God,[19] which would also be the case withVayu andLakshmi.[20] He also believes that devas are mortal, and that some of them could sink into lower stages of existence after death.[19] Therefore, he believes that only God (Vishnu) should be worshipped through devas, and that worshipping devason their own behalf is anapostasy which emerged duringTreta Yuga, and did not yet exist duringSatya Yuga.[21] According to him, this must also be noticed regardingmurtis.[22].
The Reals
This system admits of a two-fold classification of "Reals"- into the Independent and Dependent reality; the Independent Reality is One, and is Vishnu. The dependent reality comprises all else- the jivas, the jadas and also the abhava padarthas.
The Brahman
Brahman is Vishnu, He is Supreme, abode of auspicious attributes, free from blemishes, and Infinite in every sense of the term. There is no gradation of Brahman into Saguna and Nirguna; Nirguna is understood as being free from all kinds of imperfections and is itself a guna (attribute) of the Supreme.
The jivas are eternal and infinite in number. Therefore, for the jivas, Creation is the obtainment of visheshas- the bodies in successive births.
The individual souls (jiva) are depicted as reflections, images or shadows of the divine (bimba-pratibimba), but never in any way (even aftermoksha, or liberation) identical with the divine. Being a reflection of God, eachjiva has a nature with some characteristics (truth, conscious, bliss) of God in varying degree which is under the influence ofkarma in bondage and expands to its distinct full intrinsic capacity inmoksha. Liberatedjivas do not attain equality with Brahman and also are not equal to each other.[23] Jivas are qualitatively different from each other and have an intrinsic svabhava- nature that impels them into karma, good or evil.
Jadas
The jadas are the other dependent reality is subject to the cycle of creation and dissolution.
Five fundamental, eternal and real differences are described in Dvaita school:[11][2][24]
The theory of five differences is that "thejiva is different from every other entity including alljivas".[23] These five differences are said to explain the nature of the universe. The world is calledprapañca (pañca "five") by the Dvaita school for this reason.
Madhva differed significantly from traditional Hindu beliefs owing to his concept of eternaldamnation. According to him, there are three different classes of souls: One class,Mukti-yogyas, which would qualify forliberation, another, theNitya-samsarins, which would be subject toeternal rebirth or eternal transmigration and a third class,Tamo-yogyas, which would be condemned to eternalhell (Andhatamisra).[23]
Moksha (liberation) is described as the realization that all finite reality is essentially dependent on the Supreme.[11] God is believed to have shown the way to attainmoksha through severalavatars.[13]Bhakti Yoga is an essential part of Dvaita Vedanta. By devotion to God and God's grace,jiva attainsmoksha. Moksha is the expression and manifestation of the innate bliss in the soul that has been all along covered by ajnana and bondage. While Divine Grace is a must for this, Mukti is not possible without jnana (Jnanenaiva paramam padam- Sri Madhvacharya in Anubhashya, a small metric composition on the Brahmasutras). However, the concept of jnana differs significantly from that of other schools; Jnana may be described as a direct knowledge and vision (aparokshajnana) of the indwelling form of the Lord through study of scriptures, righteous living spanning births and devotion to the Lord with full understanding of his transendental attributes. However, bad karma results in condemnation from God.[15]
Sadhana and Liberation
According to Madhvacharya, thejiva is unaware of its real nature due to ignorance (avidyā) caused bymaya, and thus, is unable to realize its expression of intrinsic attributes.[23] Somejivas are predestined to attainmoksha, while others are predestined to eternally suffer.[25]. While this may seem cruel, it is actually a corollary of the three-fold classification of the svabhava or the intrinsic nature of the jivas.
Liberation for eachjiva means realizing its innate bliss by removal of covering ofmaya. Liberation can only be achieved by the grace of God with self-effort on the part of thejiva. Practicingvairāgya allowsMukti-yogyas (jivas qualified for liberation) to gain freedom from worldly attachments and develop faith in God. Self-effort which makes ajiva worthy for liberation involveskarma (good work), Jnana Yoga (knowledge) and Bhakti Yoga (devotion).Sādhaka performs such sadhana throughśravaṇa,manana andnididhyasana. Madhva also placed a great importance on a Guru's guidance and blessings to understand the jnana from scriptures. According to Madhva,śravaṇa andmanana are the only means for nidhiyasana. This sadhana leads the sadhaka toaparoksa-jnana (spiritual realisation) and liberation through grace of God.[23]
Thus the path to liberation consists of: Jnana, bhakti, jnana and bhakti again.
Dvaita philosophers challenge the Advaita Vedanta view that ignorance (avidya) explains the appearance of multiplicty in a singular, unchanging reality (Brahman). Madhva offers multiple counterarguments:[26]
Alur Venkat Rao opines that the term Dvaita is not suitable for Madhva's philosophy, hence it should not be used.
Alur Venkatarao of Dharwar gave Madhva's philosophy the name "Pūrnabrahmavāda".
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