| Dutch expedition to Valdivia | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theEighty Years' War | |||||||
 Detail from the 1646 bookJournael Ende Historis Verhael van de Reyse gedaen by Oosten de Straet le Maire, naer de Custen van Chili, onder het beleyt van den heer Generael Hendrick Brouwer, Inden Jare 1643 | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 Dutch Republic |  Spain | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Hendrik Brouwer #Elias Herckmans | Chiloé forces: | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| Several ships 600 men | |||||||
TheDutch expedition to Valdivia was a naval expedition, commanded byHendrik Brouwer, sent by theDutch Republic in 1643 to establish a base of operations and a trading post on the southern coast of Chile. WithSpain and the Dutch Republicat war, the Dutch wished to take over the ruins of the abandoned Spanish city ofValdivia. The expedition sacked the Spanish settlements ofCarelmapu andCastro in theChiloé Archipelago before sailing to Valdivia, having the initial support of the local natives. The Dutch arrived in Valdivia on 24 August 1643 and named the colonyBrouwershaven after Brouwer, who had died several weeks earlier. The short-lived colony was abandoned on 28 October 1643. Nevertheless, the occupation caused great alarm among Spanish authorities. The Spanish resettled Valdivia and began the construction of anextensive network of fortifications in 1645 to prevent a similar intrusion. Although contemporaries considered the possibility of a new incursion, the expedition was the last one undertaken by the Dutch on the west coast of the Americas.
On 23 December 1598, nativeMapuche warriors led byPelantaro ambushed and wiped out a Spanish column at theBattle of Curalaba. Following this, a general uprising developed among the Mapuche andHuilliche people of southern Chile. The subsequentArauco War was to smolder for over 250 years but its immediate effect was the so-called "Destruction of the Seven Cities": the Spanish settlements ofAngol,La Imperial,Osorno,Santa Cruz de Oñez,Valdivia andVillarrica were either destroyed or abandoned.[1] OnlyChillán andConcepción resisted the Mapuche sieges and attacks.[2] With the exception of theChiloé Archipelago, all the Chilean territory south of Bío Bío River became free of Spanish rule.[1] The abandoned city of Valdivia turned into an attractive site for Spain's enemies to control since it would allow them to establish a base amidst Spain's Chilean possessions.[3]
In 1600, localHuilliches joined the DutchcorsairBaltazar de Cordes in attacking the Spanish settlement ofCastro in Chiloé.[4][5] While this was an opportunistic assault, the Spanish correctly believed the Dutch could attempt to ally with the Mapuches and establish a stronghold in southern Chile.[6] Over time, the Spanish became aware of actual Dutch plans to establish themselves at the ruins of Valdivia and so attempted to re-establish Spanish rule there before the arrival of the Dutch.[7] These efforts were thwarted in the 1630s by the impossibility of establishing an overland route through the territory of the hostile Mapuches. The ruins of Valdivia, at the head of its splendid natural harbour, remained a tempting target for Spain's enemies.[7]
The Dutch Republic, in constant war with Spain on different fronts, had refrained from carrying out expeditions against the Spanish possessions in the American Pacific after the disaster of theJacques l'Hermite expedition in 1624, concentrating on America all its efforts in the conquest of a part of Brazil.[8] However, they tried to promote uprisings among theCriollos and natives of the American coasts, which although unsuccessful, generated alarm among the Spanish.[8] But when, at the beginning of the 1640s, the situation of the Spanish Empire deteriorated dramatically, as thewar that was being fought with France was joined by theCatalan Revolt and thePortuguese Restoration War, the Dutch saw once again the advisability of founding establishments on the western coast of America.[8][9]
In the context of the Arauco war, the Spanish authorities of theCaptaincy General of Chile had establisheda peace treaty with the Mapuche warlords in 1641, to concentrate Spanish resources on the most important European affairs.[10]
In 1642, theDutch East India Company (VOC) joined with theDutch West Indies Company (GWC) in organising an expedition underHendrik Brouwer toChile to establish a trading base at Valdivia, long abandoned.[11] Brouwer, a veteran navigator and member of the GWC, who decided to command the expedition despite his advanced age, was the main promoter of this project.[12][9] The expedition was small compared to the Dutch forces that had taken over much of Portuguese Brazil, but it was anticipated that it would be supported by the fiercely anti-Spanish Mapuche-Huilliche confederation[A] once it reached Chile.[14] The expedition was issued formal instructions to capture the gold mines believed to be abundant in the area, capture Valdivia, make alliances with indigenous peoples, the Mapuches and the Huilliches, and to exploreSanta María Island.[15][16][17] Except for Brouwer and other leaders, the true objectives were not known to the participants of the expedition; they were led to believe that it was a raiding and trading voyage.[14] The distant objectives of this expedition were to create a military base in Valdivia and then attack theViceroyalty of Peru, the Spanish jewel of the American Pacific.[18]
Brouwer and a small fleet of an unknown number of vessels left the Netherlands on 6 November 1642 with 250 men.[14] The fleet called atMauritsstad (modernRecife) inDutch Brazil whereJohn Maurice of Nassau resupplied it and provided an additional 350 men.[11][14][15] As the expedition was aimed at cold southern latitudes woolen clothes were rationed among the crew and passengers.[14][15]
While roundingCape Horn, the expedition failed to enterLe Maire Strait in an attempt to replicate the route taken byJacob Le Maire andWillem Schouten in 1616.[19] Northerly winds pushed the expedition as far south as 61°59 S whereicebergs were abundant before a southerly wind that begun on 7 April allowed the fleet to advance west.[19] This way the expedition established thatStaten Island was not part of the hypotheticalSouthern Land, since it sailed east and south of the island.[14][15][19] However, thesupply shipOrange Tree had become detached near Cape Horn but managed to return to Recife with a broken mast. The loss of this ship strained the expedition's supplies.[14]
In May 1643, the expedition arrived at the Chiloé Archipelago.[20] The Spanish at the small fortified settlement ofCarelmapu spotted the Dutch on 20 May and sent infantry and cavalry to prevent them from landing.[20][21] In the face of this threat, the Dutch had to land further away from Carelmapu at Punta de la Arena.[21] With a force of 200musketeers andarquebusiers the Dutch advanced on Carelmapu, starting bushfires to clear their way.[21] The Spanish emptied the fort of Carelmapu and hid their women and children in the forests. After the well-ordered Dutch troops opened fire on the Spanish forces they retreated hastily into the woods.[21] The Dutch entered the fort of Carelmapu, capturing much equipment, supplies and horses. A counter-attack by the Spanish ended in failure and the death of the SpanishGovernor of Chiloé, Andrés Herrera.[22] Carelmapu was subsequently sacked and its Catholic church vandalised.[20][21][22] The plunder of Carelmapu gave the Dutch the opportunity to replenish their depleted food supplies at the cost of revealing their presence to the Spanish.[20][23] However, in Carelmapu the Dutch learned that their arrival had been expected as they recovered a letter sent to the settlement'scorregidor fromPedro de Toledo, the Spanish viceroy in Peru, warning of a Dutch expedition and ordering the use of ascorched earth strategy against them.[20] The Dutch captured Spaniards, including Antonio Sánchez Jinés who later guided them to the Spanish settlement of Castro and other places in the archipelago.[22][24] Sánchez Jinés was particularly useful as he spoke indigenousMapudungun.[24]
Fernando de Alvarado succeeded Andrés Herrera as military commander of the Spanish in Chiloé.[22] De Alvarado organized the remaining troops in Carelmapu andCalbuco aiming to prevent an indigenous uprising and harass the Dutch invaders.[25] He moved quickly through the forested paths that led south from Carelmapu and reached Castro before the Dutch did so.[25] Amidst heavy rains de Alvarado ordered the city of Castro to be dismantled and the population to hide in the forests.[25] Buildings in Castro had their straw roofs removed as well as thewood shingle roof of the church to render them useless as shelters and more difficult to burn. As in Carelmapu, the Dutch sacked the settlement upon arrival and vandalised its church. According to contemporary Spanish chroniclerDiego de Rosales, the Dutch insulted the prisoners in Spanish, Latin and Portuguese, called them cowards, and encouraged them to reveal where they could find their women.[22] In Castro the Dutch left an inscription insulting the inhabitants of the city.[25]
After Castro the Dutch went back north pillaging the countryside managing to gather chickens, sheep, pigs and many apples.[25][B] Because the inhabitants of Chiloé Archipelago had hidden, the Dutch met few people after leaving Castro.[25][C]
In July, the expedition returned to Carelmapu where 470 Huilliches agreed to join the expedition to Valdivia. The expedition spent May to mid-August, the southern hemisphere winter, resting, reorganising and repairing ships and equipment. It also gathered intelligence on the Chiloé Archipelago.[20] On 7 August, Brouwer died inPuerto Inglés.[15][20] Maurice of Nassau had foreseen that this might happen and had provided the expedition with a sealed letter to be opened in this eventuality.[28] The letter transferred command to Vice-GeneralElias Herckmans, who had until then been in charge of the shipVlissingen; he had previously been governor ofParaíba.[15][20][28]
Meanwhile, De Alvarado arranged for the fast assembly of a sailing vessel in southern Chiloé, which as soon as ready hastily sailed toArauco to alert the Spanish in mainland Chile.[29] To avoid interception by the Dutch envoys had to sail roundChiloé Island from the south through theGulf of Corcovado.[29] This ship was led by captain Domingo Lorenzo and having on board alsoJesuit missionary Domingo Lázaro and Dutch prisoner Joost Lambertsz who had been captured in Carelmapu.[29] Reaching Arauco in late August safely was in itself an accomplishment as sailing in theRoaring Forties in the Austral winter was dangerous given it was a season of rain and storms.[29] Once Spanish authorities inCentral Chile learned about the Dutch expedition captainAlonso de Mujica y Buitrón was sent with Father Lázaro to Lima to give the news to theViceroy of Peru.[29]
The expedition set sail for Valdivia on 21 August and reached their destination within three days.[20] Herckmans arrived at the mouth ofValdivia River inCorral Bay on 24 August. From there the Dutch had difficulties sailing up the Valdivia River to the site of Valdivia as they lacked experience of sailing on rivers.[28][30] AtTornagaleones River one ship ran aground on arocky shallow.[30] This ship was dismantled.[30] The ruins of Valdivia were reached by the two remaining ships four days later on 28 August.[30] Upon arrival curious Mapuches gathered to watch them.[30] The ships were surrounded by canoes.[30] Reportedly some natives boarded the ships and stole iron objects, including a valuablecompass.[30]
In Valdivia the Dutch established a new settlement, which Herckmans named Brouwershaven after Brouwer.[15] On 29 August the Dutch had met with localtribal leaderManquipillan and his host.[30][20] In the meeting the Dutch held a long discourse in which they highlighted what they believed was the common enmity to Spain; later gifts were given by the Dutch.[30] At the end a friendly relationship had been established with Manquipillan.[20] A new solemn meeting was held on 3 September, with an even greater assistance. In this meeting a formal alliance was established between the Dutch and local Mapuches.[30] Local Mapuches promised to help the Dutch with the construction of a fort and to give provisions for the nascent colony.[30] The embalmed body of Brouwer was buried in Valdivia on 16 September there.[30][15]
A ship under Captain Elbert Crispijnsen was sent back toDutch Brazil on 25 September to report on the positive development of the colony and request additional supplies.[20] In Valdivia the Dutch began the construction of a fort.[16] A major setback to the Dutch was that they had also failed to find the anticipated gold mines.[31] The Mapuches began to realise the Dutch had no plans of leaving and their search for gold caused suspicion, leading the locals to halt their deliveries of food.[20][16] The Mapuche chiefJuan Manqueante, fromMariquina, who was in friendly terms with the Dutch, staunchly refused them to access thegold mines of Madre de Dios in his lands.[32] Manqueante told the Dutch of his people's negative experiences of Spanish gold mining.[32] Other contributing factors behind the cold attitude of local Mapuches may have been the Dutch rhetoric about war with Spain, which may have upset the Mapuches of Valdivia who had lived in peace for about forty years and the fact that local Mapuches may not have seen any significant difference between the Dutch and Spanish.[30] Local Mapuches justified not sending provisions by claiming they did not have enough food for themselves.[30] The Dutch were demoralised by the scarcity of food and lack of comfort.[24] A mutiny begun to smolder and some Dutchleft the encampment at night forthe woods with the final aim of surrendering to the Spanish inConcepción.[24]
Spanish interpreter Antonio Sánchez Jinés warned the Dutch of the changing attitudes, yet the Dutch leadership chose to turn a blind eye to this issue.[30] Sánchez Jinés feared for his life as he told the Dutch of Mapuches wanting to kill him blaming him for having told the Dutch about gold riches and guiding them to Valdivia.[24]
Local Mapuches went further to attempt to have part of the Dutch to depart to crush an alleged Spanish troop gathering nearLa Imperial.[30][24] Having been told that the information about the Spanish was false and an ambush, Herckmans called for a council among the Dutch officers on 15 October.[30] The council took the decision to retreat toConstantino Island[D] thus abandoning Valdivia.[16] The next day, 16 October, four deserters were arrested and two of themexecuted with firearms.[34] On 26 October more deserters and accomplices were tried, resulting in various executions.[34]
Yet before leaving Valdivia the Dutch called local Mapuches for a meeting where Herckmans made them aware that treacherous attitudes had not gone unnoticed.[30] Nevertheless, following this the Dutch gave away some of their antique weapons and armour includingchain mails andmorions in exchange for provisions.[30] Likely it was also their hope these weapons would be put into use against the Spanish.[30]
Juan Manqueante provided relief to the hungry Dutch in the form of cattle.[30][20] This relief was only temporary since Manqueante probably considered it a farewell gift.[20] Before leaving, Manqueante was contacted by Herckmans to let him know that the Dutch intended to return with 1,000African slaves to take care of mining and agriculture in order to leave the indigenous peoples free offorced labour. This promise was never fulfilled.[20]
The expedition finally left Chile on 28 October and reached Recife on 28 December, three weeks after the arrival of Crispijnsen.[30][35] In Brazil the reinforcements and provisions asked for by Crispijnsen were ready to sail for Valdivia and John Maurice of Nassau was disappointed to learn that the colony had been dismantled.[35] The failure of the expedition was blamed on Herckmans who died soon afterwards.[30] ThePernambucan Insurrection broke out in Dutch Brazil in 1645, recapturing most of the Dutch territory and putting great pressure on the local Dutch leaders. With no resources to spare, Dutch pretensions in Chile were at an end.[35]
Francisco López de Zúñiga, the Governor of Chile, dispatched Juan de Acevedo in charge of a ship to Valdivia to gather information on 30 April 1644. De Acevedo reachedCorral Bay by May noticing that the Dutch were nowhere to be found.[36][37]
Having heard fromJuan Manqueante that the Dutch planned to return, Pedro de Toledo conceived an occupation of Valdivia by a synchronous advance by the Spanish army in Chile by land and by a fleet sent from Peru.[38] De Toledo ordered 2,000 men to march over land from Central Chile to resettle Valdivia and fortify it. These troops penetrated Mapuche territory following the coast south and reachedToltén River on 9 February 1645.[38] Reaching so far south was a feat in itself since the Spanish had not been around these places in the last 50 years.[38] At this point the army had met considerable harassment from the Mapuches.[38] The killing of scouting auxiliaries in conjunction with uncertainty regarding the arrival by sea of the Spanish from Peru made López de Zúñiga retreat back north.[38][E]
De Toledo's naval expedition was made up of twenty ships and 1,000 men fromEl Callao in Peru. The large fleet, which gained a further two ships in Chile, was unprecedented in the region and astounded contemporary observers. It arrived at Valdivia in February 1645 without incident and disembarked the soldiers with their equipment and supplies. The Spanish disinterred andburned Brouwer's body.[35][15]
The soldiers of the new garrison and the artisans dispatched with them commenced construction of a system of defensive fortifications. These would become theValdivian Fort System, the most important defensive complex of the American South Pacific coast. It is an exceptional example of the Hispanic-American school of fortification. The building and maintenance of the fortifications became a heavy burden for the Spanish colonial finances but this was felt necessary in order to defend the southern approaches to Peru, the colony which, along with Mexico, constituted the main source of wealth for the Spanish Crown.[35] Investments in the defense of Corral Bay were validated in 1670 when a fully armed English ship commanded byJohn Narborough arrived to the bay, causing concern he might launch an assault. Eventually, Narborough left as quickly as he had arrived without disclosing the reason for his presence, greatly confusing the Spanish authorities.[39]
Manqueante is said to have remained aligned with the Spanish from the Dutch departure in 1643 to theMapuche uprising of 1655.[40][F]
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