Although the Druze faith developed fromIsma'ilism, Druze do not identify asMuslims.[31][21][32] They maintainArabic language andculture as integral parts of their identity,[33][34][18] with Arabic being their primary language.[35] Most Druze religious practices are kept secret,[36] and conversion to their religion is not permitted for outsiders.[37]Interfaith marriages are rare and strongly discouraged. They differentiate between spiritual individuals, known as "uqqāl", who hold the faith's secrets, and secular ones, known as "juhhāl", who focus on worldly matters.[38] Druze believe that, after completing the cycle of rebirth through successive reincarnations, the soul reunites with theCosmic Mind (al-ʻaql al-kullī).[39]
The Druze faith is one of themajor religious groups in theLevant, with between 800,000 and a million adherents. They are primarily located inLebanon,Syria, andIsrael, with smaller communities inJordan. They make up 5.5% of Lebanon's population, 3% of Syria and 1.6% of Israel. The oldest and most densely-populated Druze communities exist inMount Lebanon and in the south of Syria aroundJabal al-Druze (literally the "Mountain of the Druze").[57] The Druze community played a critically important role in shaping the history of the Levant, where it continues to play a significant political role.[58] As a religious minority, they have often facedpersecution from various Muslim regimes, including contemporaryIslamic extremism.[59][60][61]
Several theories about the origins of the Druze have been proposed, with the Arabian hypothesis being the most widely accepted among historians, intellectuals, and religious leaders within the Druze community.[62] This hypothesis significantly influences the Druze's self-perception, cultural identity, and both oral and written traditions.[33] It suggests that the Druze are descended from 12Arab tribes that migrated toSyria before and during the early Islamic period.[63][64][65] This perspective is accepted by the entire Druze communities inSyria andLebanon, as well as by mostDruze in Israel.[note 1][70]
The name Druze is derived from the name ofMuhammad bin Ismail Nashtakin ad-Darazī (fromPersiandarzi, "seamster") who was an earlypreacher. Although the Druze consider ad-Darazī aheretic,[71] the name has been used to identify them, possibly by their historical opponents as a way to attach their community with ad-Darazi's poor reputation.
Before becoming public, the movement was secretive and held closed meetings in what was known as Sessions of Wisdom. During this stage a dispute occurred between ad-Darazi andHamza bin Ali mainly concerning ad-Darazi'sghuluww ("exaggeration"), which refers to the belief that God wasincarnated in human beings to ad-Darazi naming himself "The Sword of the Faith", which led Hamza to write an epistle refuting the need for the sword to spread the faith and several epistles refuting the beliefs of theghulat.
In 1016 ad-Darazi and his followers openly proclaimed their beliefs and called people to join them, causing riots in Cairo against the Unitarian movement including Hamza bin Ali and his followers. This led to the suspension of the movement for one year and the expulsion of ad-Darazi and his supporters.[20]
Although the Druze religious books describe ad-Darazi as the "insolent one" and as the "calf" who is narrow-minded and hasty, the name "Druze" is still used for identification and for historical reasons. In 1018, ad-Darazi was assassinated for his teachings; some sources claim that he was executed by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[71][72]
Some authorities see in the name "Druze" a descriptive epithet, derived from Arabicdārisah ("she who studies").[73] Others have speculated that the word comes from the Persian wordDarazo (درز "bliss") or fromShaykh Hussayn ad-Darazī, who was one of the early converts to the faith.[74] In the early stages of the movement, the word "Druze" is rarely mentioned by historians, and in Druze religious texts only the wordMuwaḥḥidūn ("Unitarian") appears. The only early Arab historian who mentions the Druze is the eleventh century Christian scholarYahya of Antioch, who clearly refers to the heretical group created by ad-Darazī, rather than the followers of Hamza ibn 'Alī.[74] As for Western sources,Benjamin of Tudela, the Jewish traveler who passed through Lebanon in or around 1165, was one of the first European writers to refer to the Druze by name. The wordDogziyin ("Druzes") occurs in an early Hebrew edition of his travels, but it is clear that this is a scribal error. Be that as it may, he described the Druze as "mountain dwellers, monotheists, who believe in 'soul eternity' andreincarnation".[75] He also stated that "they loved the Jews".[76]
Location
The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in theLevant.[77] The primary countries with Druze populations are Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan.[78][79]
According to the Institute of Druze Studies, as of 1998, approximately 40–50% of Druze live in Syria, 30–40% in Lebanon, 6–7% in Israel, and 1–2% in Jordan.[78] About 2% of the Druze are scattered across other Middle Eastern countries, and there were approximately 20,000 Druze in the United States at that time.[78][80] Scholar Colbert C. Held from theUniversity of Nebraska, Lincoln estimates that the global Druze population is around 1 million. He notes that about 45% to 50% live in Syria, 35% to 40% live in Lebanon, and less than 10% live in Israel. Recently, there has been a growing Druze diaspora.[81]
Outside theMiddle East, significant Druze communities exist in Australia, Canada, Europe, Latin America (mainly Venezuela,[10] Colombia and Brazil[dubious –discuss]), the United States, and West Africa. They are Arabs who speakLevantine Arabic and follow a social pattern very similar to those of the other peoples of theLevant (eastern Mediterranean).[82] In 2021 the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East are in Venezuela, with approximately 60,000, and in the United States, with around 50,000.[83] In 2017, theLos Angeles Times reported about 30,000 Druze in the United States, with the largest concentration inSouthern California.[84]
History
Early history
The story of the creation of the Druze faith in the days between 1017 and 1018 is dominated by three men and their struggle for influence.
Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad was an Ismaili mystic and scholar fromKhorasan, who arrived in Fatimid Egypt in 1014 or 1016[85] and began to preach aMuwaḥḥidūn ("Unitarian") doctrine.
al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the sixth Fātimid caliph, became a central figure in the faith being preached by Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad.
Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad, an Ismaili mystic and scholar fromZozan, Khorasan, in theSamanid Empire.[85] arrived in Fatimid Egypt in 1014 or 1016.[85] He assembled a group of scholars that met regularly in the Raydan Mosque, near theAl-Hakim Mosque.[86] In 1017, Hamza began to preach aMuwaḥḥidūn (Unitarian) doctrine.
Hamza gained the support of the Fātimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, who issued a decree promoting religious freedom[87][88] and eventually became a central figure in the Druze faith.[89][90][91][page needed]
al-Darazi arrives in Cairo
Little is known about the early life of al-Darazi. According to most sources, he was born inBukhara. He is believed to have been of Persian origins and his titleal-Darazi is Persian in origin, meaning "the tailor".[92] He arrived in Cairo in 1015, or 1017, after which he joined the newly emerged Druze movement.[93]
Al-Darazi was converted early to the Unitarian faith and became one of its early preachers. At that time, the movement enlisted a large number of adherents.[94] As the number of his followers grew, he became obsessed with his leadership and gave himself the title "The Sword of the Faith". Al-Darazi argued that he should be the leader of thedaʻwah rather than Hamza ibn Ali and gave himself the title "Lord of the Guides" because Caliph al-Hakim referred to Hamza as "Guide of the Consented". It is said that al-Darazi allowed wine, forbidden marriages and taughtmetempsychosis[95] although this may be exaggeration by contemporary and later historians and polemicists.
This attitude led to disputes between Ad-Darazi and Hamza ibn Ali, who disliked his behavior and his arrogance. In theEpistles of Wisdom, Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad warns al-Darazi, saying, "Faith does not need a sword to aid it", but al-Darazi ignored Hamza's warnings and continued to challenge the Imam.
Thedivine call or unitarian call is the Druze period of time that was opened at sunset on Thursday, 30 May 1017 by Ad-Darazi. The call summoned people to a true unitarian belief that removed all attributes (wise, just, outside, inside, etc.) from God.[96] It promoted absolutemonotheism and the concepts of supporting your fellow man, true speech and pursuit of oneness with God. These concepts superseded allritual, law anddogma and requirements forpilgrimage,fasting,holy days,prayer, charity,devotion,creed and particular worship of any prophet or person was downplayed.Sharia was opposed and Druze traditions started during the call continue today, such as meeting for reading, prayer and social gathering on a Thursday instead of a Friday atKhalwats instead of mosques. Such gatherings and traditions were not compulsory and people were encouraged to pursue a state of compliance with the real law of nature governing the universe.[97] Epistle thirteen of theEpistles of Wisdom called it "A spiritual doctrine without any ritualistic imposition".[98][page needed]
The time of the call was seen as a revolution of truth, withmissionaries preaching its message all around the Middle East. These messengers were sent out with the Druze epistles and took writtenvows from believers, whosesouls are thought to still exist in the Druze of today. The souls of those who took the vows during the call are believed to be continuously reincarnating in successive generations of Druze until the return of al-Hakim to proclaim a second Divine call and establish aGolden Age ofjustice andpeace for all.[99]
al-Darazi is executed
By 1018, al-Darazi had gathered around him partisans—"Darazites"—who believed thatuniversal reason became incarnated inAdam at the beginning of the world, was then passed to the prophets, then into Ali, and then into his descendants, the Fatimid Caliphs.[95] Al-Darazi wrote a book laying out this doctrine, but when he read from his book in the principal mosque in Cairo, it caused riots and protests against his claims and many of his followers were killed.
Hamza ibn Ali rejected al-Darazi's ideology, calling him "the insolent one and Satan".[95] The controversy led Caliph al-Hakim to suspend the Druzedaʻwah in 1018.[100]
In an attempt to gain the support of al-Hakim, al-Darazi started preaching that al-Hakim and his ancestors were theincarnation of God.[94] An inherently modest man, al-Hakim did not believe that he was God, and felt al-Darazi was trying to depict himself as a new prophet.[94] In 1018 Al-Hakim had al-Darazi executed, leaving Hamza the sole leader of the new faith and al-Darazi considered to be a renegade.[94][100][95]
Disappearance of Al-Hakim
Al-Hakim disappeared one night while on his evening ride—presumably assassinated, perhaps at the behest of his formidable elder sisterSitt al-Mulk. The Druze believe he went intoOccultation with Hamza ibn Ali and three other prominent preachers, leaving the care of the "Unitarian missionary movement" to a new leader, al-Muqtana Baha'uddin.[citation needed]
The call was suspended briefly between 19 May 1018 and 9 May 1019 during theapostasy of al-Darazi and again between 1021 and 1026 during a period of persecution by theFatimid caliphal-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah for those who had sworn theoath to accept the call.[98][page needed]
Persecutions started forty days after the disappearance into Occultation of al-Hakim, who was thought to have been converting people to the Unitarian faith for over twenty years prior.[98][page needed] Al-Hakim convinced some heretical followers such as al-Darazi of hissoteriologicaldivinity and officially declared the Divine call after issuing a decree promoting religious freedom.[101][98][page needed]
Al-Hakim was replaced by his underage son, al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah. The Unitarian/Druze movement acknowledged al-Zahir as the caliph but continued to regard Hamzah as its Imam.[72] The young caliph's regent, Sitt al-Mulk, ordered the army to destroy the movement in 1021.[71] At the same time, Bahāʼ al-Dīn was assigned the leadership of the Unitarians by Hamza.[72]
For the next seven years, the Druze faced extreme persecution by al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah, who wanted to eradicate the faith.[102] This was the result of a power struggle inside of the Fatimid Calphate, in which the Druze were viewed with suspicion because they refused to recognize the new caliph as their Imam.
Many spies, mainly the followers of al-Darazi, joined the Unitarian movement to infiltrate the Druze community. The spies set about agitating trouble and soiling the reputation of the Druze. This resulted in friction with the new caliph who clashed militarily with the Druze community. The clashes ranged fromAntioch toAlexandria, where tens of thousands of Druze were slaughtered by the Fatimid army,[71] "this mass persecution known by the Druze as the period of themihna".[103] The largest massacre was at Antioch, where 5000 prominent Druze were killed, followed by that ofAleppo.[71] As a result, the faith went underground, in hope of survival, as those captured were either forced to renounce their faith or be killed. Druze survivors "were found principally in southern Lebanon and Syria".
In 1038, two years after the death of al-Zahir li-I'zaz Din Allah, the Druze movement was able to resume because the new leadership that replaced him had friendly political ties with at least one prominent Druze leader.[102]
Closing of the unitarian call
In 1043,Baha al-Din al-Muqtana declared that the sect would no longer accept new pledges, and since that timeproselytism has been prohibited awaiting al-Hakim's return at theLast Judgment to usher in a new Golden Age.[104][102]
Some Druze and non-Druze scholars like Samy Swayd andSami Makarem state that this confusion is due to confusion about the role of the early preacher al-Darazi, whose teachings the Druze rejected as heretical.[105] These sources assert that al-Hakim rejected al-Darazi's claims of divinity,[72][94][106][page needed] and ordered the elimination of his movement while supporting that of Hamza ibn Ali.[107]
During the Crusades
Wadi al-Taym, inLebanon, was one of the two most important centers of Druze missionary activity in the 11th century[108] and was the first area where the Druze appeared in the historical record under the name "Druze".[109] It is generally considered the birthplace of the Druze faith.[110]
It was during the period of Crusader rule in Levant (1099–1291) that the Druze first emerged into the full light of history in the Gharb region of theChouf. As powerful warriors serving the leaders inDamascus against theCrusades, the Druze were given the task of keeping watch over the Crusaders in the seaport ofBeirut, to prevent them from making any encroachments inland. Subsequently, the Druze chiefs of the Gharb placed their considerable military experience at the disposal of theMamluk sultans in Egypt (1250–1516); first, to assist them in putting an end to what remained of Crusader rule in the coastal Levant, and later to help them safeguard the Lebanese coast against Crusader retaliation by sea.[111]
In the early period of the Crusader era, the Druze feudal power was in the hands of two families, theTanukhs and theArslans. From their fortresses in the Gharb area (now inAley District of southernMount Lebanon Governorate), the Tanukhs led their incursions into the Phoenician coast and finally succeeded in holding Beirut and the marine plain against theFranks. Because of their fierce battles with the Crusaders, the Druze earned the respect of theSunni caliphs and thus gained important political powers.
After the middle of the twelfth century, theMaan family superseded the Tanukhs in Druze leadership. The origin of the family goes back to Prince Ma'an, who made his appearance in Lebanon in the days of the Abbasid caliphal-Mustarshid (1118–35). The Ma'ans chose for their abode the Chouf in south-western Lebanon (southernMount Lebanon Governorate), overlooking the maritime plain betweenBeirut andSidon, and made their headquarters inBaaqlin, which is still a leading Druze village. They were invested with feudal authority by SultanNur ad-Din Zengi and furnished respectable contingents to the Muslim ranks in their struggle against the Crusaders.[112][page needed]
Certain aspects of the faith, such astransmigration of souls between adherents andincarnation, were viewed asheretical orkufr (infidelity) and foreign by Sunni and Shia Muslims,[113] but contributed to solidarity among the Druze, who closed their religion to new converts in 1046 due to the threat of persecution.[114] Theproto-Salafi thinkeribn Taymiyya believed the Druze had a high level of infidelity besides beingapostates. Thus, they were not trustworthy and should not be forgiven. He taught also that Muslims cannot accept Druze penitence nor keep them alive, and that Druze property should be confiscated and their womenenslaved.[113][115]
Having cleared theHoly Land of the Crusaders, the Mamluk Sultanate now turned their attention to the schismatic Muslims of Syria. In 1305, after the issuing of afatwa by the scholar ibn Taymiyya calling forjihad against all non-Sunni Muslim groups like the Druze,Alawites, Isma'ilis, andTwelver Shi'a,al-Nasir Muhammad inflicted a disastrous defeat on the Druze atKeserwan, and forced outward compliance on their part to Sunnism. TheSunni Mamluk campaigns led to the destruction of many Christian churches and monasteries and Druze sanctuarieskhilwat, and caused mass destruction ofMaronite and Druze villages and the killings and mass displacement of its inhabitants.[116]Lebanese Sunni authors generally write of the campaigns from a pro-Mamluk stance, seeing in them the legitimate Muslim state's efforts to incorporate Mount Lebanon into the Islamic realm, while Druze authors write with a focus on the Druze community's consistent connection toMount Lebanon and defense of its practical autonomy.[117]
Later, the Druze were severely attacked atSaoufar in the1585 Ottoman expedition against the Druze after the Ottomans claimed that the Druze had assaulted their caravans nearTripoli.[112][page needed] As a result of the Ottoman experience with the rebellious Druze, the wordDurzi inTurkish came, and continues, to mean someone who is the ultimate thug.[118]
The 16th and 17th centuries witnessed a succession of armed Druze rebellions against the Ottomans countered by repeated Ottoman punitive expeditions against the Chouf, in which the Druze population of the area was severely depleted and many villages destroyed. These military measures, severe as they were, did not succeed in reducing the local Druze to the required degree of subordination. This led the Ottoman government to agree to an arrangement whereby the differentnahiyahs (districts) of the Chouf would be granted iniltizam ("fiscal concession") to one of the region'samirs, or leading chiefs, leaving the maintenance of law and order and the collection of taxes in the area in the hands of the appointed amir. This arrangement was to provide the cornerstone for the privileged status ultimately enjoyed by the whole of Mount Lebanon, Druze and Christian areas alike.[111]
With the advent of the Ottoman Turks and the conquest of Syria bySultan Selim I in 1516, theMa'ans were acknowledged by the new rulers as the feudal lords of southern Lebanon. Druze villages spread and prospered in that region, which under Ma'an leadership so flourished that it acquired the generic term ofJabal Bayt-Ma'an (the mountain home of the Ma'an) orJabal al-Druze. The latter title has since been usurped by theHawran region, which since the middle of the 19th century has proven a haven of refuge to Druze emigrants from Lebanon and has become the headquarters of Druze power.[112][page needed]
UnderFakhr-al-Dīn II (Fakhreddin II), the Druze dominion increased until it included Lebanon-Phoenicia and almost all Syria, extending from the edge of the Antioch plain in the north toSafad in the south, with a part of the Syrian desert dominated byFakhr-al-Din's castle at Tadmur (Palmyra), the ancient capital ofZenobia. The ruins of this castle still stand on a steep hill overlooking the town. Fakhr-al-Din became too strong for his Turkish sovereign inConstantinople. He went so far in 1608 as to sign a commercial treaty withDuke Ferdinand I of Tuscany containing secret military clauses. The Sultan then sent a force against him, and he was compelled to flee the land and seek refuge in the courts ofTuscany andNaples in 1613 and 1615 respectively.
In 1618, political changes in the Ottoman sultanate had resulted in the removal of many enemies of Fakhr-al-Din from power, signaling the prince's triumphant return to Lebanon soon afterwards. Through a clever policy of bribery and warfare, he extended his domains to cover all of modern Lebanon, some of Syria and northern Galilee.
In 1632,Küçük Ahmed Pasha was named Lord ofDamascus. Küçük Ahmed Pasha was a rival of Fakhr-al-Din and a friend of the sultanMurad IV, who ordered the pasha and the sultanate's navy to attack Lebanon and depose Fakhr-al-Din.
This time the prince decided to remain in Lebanon and resist the offensive, but the death of his son Ali inWadi al-Taym was the beginning of his defeat. He later took refuge inJezzine's grotto, closely followed by Küçük Ahmed Pasha who eventually caught up with him and his family.
A modern, artistic representation ofFakhr-al-Dīn II in theBeiteddine Palace. Fakhr al-Din is considered by the Lebanese as the founder of the country
Fakhr-al-Din was captured, taken toIstanbul, and imprisoned with two of his sons in the infamous Yedi Kule prison. The Sultan had Fakhr-al-Din and his sons killed on 13 April 1635 inIstanbul, bringing an end to an era in the history of Lebanon, which would not regain its current boundaries until it was proclaimed a mandate state and republic in 1920. One version recounts that the younger son was spared, raised in the harem and went on to become Ottoman Ambassador to India.[119]
Fakhr-al-Din II was the first ruler in modern Lebanon to open the doors of his country to foreign Western influences. Under his auspices the French established a khān (hostel) in Sidon, theFlorentines a consulate, and Christian missionaries were admitted into the country. Beirut and Sidon, which Fakhr-al-Din II beautified, still bear traces of his benign rule. See the new biography of this Prince, based on original sources, by TJ Gorton:Renaissance Emir: a Druze Warlord at the Court of the Medici (London, Quartet Books, 2013), for an updated view of his life.
Fakhr ad Din II was succeeded in 1635 by his nephewMulhim Ma'n, who ruled through his death in 1658. (Fakhr ad Din's only surviving son, Husayn, lived the rest of his life as a court official in Constantinople.) Emir Mulhim exercisedIltizam taxation rights in the Shuf, Gharb, Jurd, Matn, and Kisrawan districts of Lebanon. Mulhim's forces battled and defeated those of Mustafa Pasha,Beylerbey of Damascus, in 1642, but he is reported by historians to have been otherwise loyal to Ottoman rule.[120]
Following Mulhim's death, his sonsAhmad and Korkmaz entered into apower struggle with other Ottoman-backed Druze leaders. In 1660, the Ottoman Empire moved to reorganize the region, placing thesanjaks (districts) of Sidon-Beirut and Safed in a newly formedprovince of Sidon, a move seen by local Druze as an attempt to assert control.[121] Contemporary historian Istifan al-Duwayhi reports that Korkmaz was killed in act of treachery by the Beylerbey of Damascus in 1662.[121] Ahmad however emerged victorious in thepower struggle among the Druze in 1667, but the Maʿnīs lost control of Safad[122] and retreated to controlling the iltizam of the Shuf mountains and Kisrawan.[123] Ahmad continued as local ruler through his death from natural causes, without heir, in 1697.[122]
During theOttoman–Habsburg War (1683–1699), Ahmad Ma'n collaborated in a rebellion against the Ottomans which extended beyond his death.[122] Iltizam rights in Shuf and Kisrawan passed to the risingShihab family through female-line inheritance.[123]
As early as the days ofSaladin, and while the Ma'ans were still in complete control over southern Lebanon, the Shihab tribe, originallyHijaz Arabs, but later settled in Ḥawran, advanced from Ḥawran, in 1172, and settled inWadi al-Taym at the foot of mountHermon. They soon made an alliance with the Ma'ans and were acknowledged as the Druze chiefs inWadi al-Taym. At the end of the 17th century (1697) the Shihabs succeeded the Ma'ans in the feudal leadership of Druze southern Lebanon, although they reportedly professedSunni Islam, they showed sympathy with Druze, the religion of the majority of their subjects.
The Shihab leadership continued until the middle of the 19th century and culminated in the illustrious governorship ofAmir Bashir Shihab II (1788–1840) who, after Fakhr-al-Din, was the most powerful feudal lord Lebanon produced. Though governor of the Druze Mountain, Bashir was acrypto-Christian, and it was he whose aidNapoleon solicited in 1799 during his campaign against Syria. The "Druze-Christian alliance" during this century was the major factor enabling theShehab dynasty to maintain power.[124]
Having consolidated his conquests in Syria (1831–1838),Ibrahim Pasha, son of the viceroy of Egypt,Muhammad Ali Pasha, made the fatal mistake of trying to disarm the Christians and Druze of the Lebanon and to draft the latter into his army. This was contrary to the principles of the life of independence which these mountaineers had always lived, and resulted in a general uprising against Egyptian rule.[125] The Druze of Wadi al-Taym and Ḥawran, under the leadership of Shibli al-Aryan, distinguished themselves in their stubborn resistance at their inaccessible headquarters,al-Laja, lying southeast of Damascus.[112][page needed]
Meeting of Druze and Ottoman leaders inDamascus, about the control of Jebel Druze
The conquest of Syria by the Muslim Arabs in the middle of the seventh century introduced into the land two political factions later called the Qaysites and theYemenites. The Qaysite party represented theBedouin Arabs who were regarded as inferior by the Yemenites who were earlier and more cultured emigrants into Syria from southern Arabia. Druze and Christians grouped in political, rather than religious, parties; the party lines in Lebanon obliterated ethnic and religious lines and the people grouped themselves into one or the other of these two parties regardless of their religious affiliations. The sanguinary feuds between these two factions depleted, in course of time, the manhood of the Lebanon and ended in the decisivebattle of Ain Dara in 1711, which resulted in the utter defeat of the Yemenite party. Many Yemenite Druze thereupon migrated to theHauran region, laying the foundation of Druze power there.[112][page needed]
The Qays were led by Emir Haydar of theShihab dynasty and consisted of the Druze clans ofJumblatt, Talhuq, Imad and Abd al-Malik and theMaronite clan ofKhazen. The Yamani faction was led by Mahmoud Abu Harmoush and consisted of the DruzeAlam al-Din,Arslan andSawaf clans. The Yamani faction also had backing from the Ottoman provincial authorities ofSidon andDamascus.[126] The battle ended in a rout of the Yamani faction and resulted in the consolidation of Qaysi political and fiscal domination overMount Lebanon.[126] The battle's outcome also precipitated a mass migration of pro-Yamani Druze nobility and peasants from Mount Lebanon to the easternHauran, in a mountainous area today known asJabal al-Druze. This area had seen previous waves of Druze migration starting in 1685. Consequently, theMaronite Christian population in Mount Lebanon became the dominant group.[126] The Yamani Druze exodus significantly contributed to a demographic shift in Mount Lebanon, with Maronites and other Christians, namely from theGreek Orthodox andMelkite sects, making up a large share of the population at the expense of the Druze.[127]
After theShehab dynasty converted to Christianity, some prominent Druze families, including the Druze Abi-Lamma clan—who were close allies of the Shihabs—also converted to Christianity and joined theMaronite Church.[132][133][134] The Druze community and feudal leaders came under attack from the regime with the collaboration of theMaronite Catholic Church, and the Druze lost most of their political and feudal powers.[135] Also, the Druze formed an alliance withBritain and allowedProtestant missionaries to enter Mount Lebanon, creating tension between them and the Catholic Maronites.[136]
The Maronite-Druze conflict in 1840–60 was an outgrowth of the Maronite independence movement,[citation needed] directed against the Druze, Druze feudalism, and the Ottoman-Turks. The civil war was not therefore a religious war,[citation needed] except in Damascus, where it spread and where the vastly non-Druze population wasanti-Christian.[137] This animosity was fueled by economic disparities, with Christians, who were generally wealthier and more prosperous, compare to the economically struggling Muslim residents.[138] The movement culminated with the 1859–60 massacre and defeat of the Maronites by the Druze. The civil war of 1860 cost the Maronites some ten thousand lives inDamascus,Zahlé,Deir al-Qamar,Hasbaya, and other towns of Lebanon.[139]
The European powers then determined to intervene, and authorized the landing in Beirut of a body of French troops underGeneral Beaufort d'Hautpoul, whose inscription can still be seen on the historic rock at the mouth ofNahr al-Kalb. French intervention on behalf of the Maronites did not help the Maronite national movement, since France was restricted in 1860 by the British government, which did not want theOttoman Empire dismembered. But European intervention pressured the Turks to treat the Maronites more justly.[140] Following the recommendations of the powers, the Ottoman Porte granted Lebanon local autonomy, guaranteed by the powers, under a Maronite governor. This autonomy was maintained until World War I.[112][page needed][141][page needed]
TheMaroniteCatholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" which developed in Ottoman-era Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate,[142] creating one of the calmest atmospheres that Lebanon had ever lived in.[143] The ruling and social system in theMount Lebanon Mutasarrifate was formed from the Maronite-Druze dualism, and the security stability and Druze-Maronite coexistence in the Mutasarrifate allowed the development of the economy and the system of government.[143]
The Hauran rebellion was a violent Druze uprising against Ottoman authority in the Syrian province, which erupted in May 1909. The rebellion was led byal-Atrash family, originated in local disputes and Druze unwillingness to pay taxes and conscript into the Ottoman Army. The rebellion ended in brutal suppression of the Druze by General Sami Pasha al-Farouqi, significant depopulation of the Hauran region and execution of the Druze leaders in 1910. In the outcome of the revolt, 2,000 Druze were killed, a similar number wounded, and hundreds of Druze fighters imprisoned.[144] Al-Farouqi also disarmed the population, extracted significant taxes, and launched a census of the region.
The Druze religion does not endorse separatism, and urges blending with the communities they reside in; the Druze have often done so to avoid persecution. Yet the Druze also have a history of resistance to occupying powers, and they have at times enjoyed more freedom than most other groups living in theLevant.[146]
In Syria, most Druzites live in theJebel al-Druze, a rugged and mountainous region in the southwest of the country, which is more than 90 percent Druze inhabited; some 120 villages are exclusively so.[148][page needed] Other notable communities live in theHarim Mountains, theDamascus suburb ofJaramana, and on the southeast slopes ofMount Hermon. A large Syrian Druze community historically lived in theGolan Heights, but following wars with Israel in1967 and1973, many of these Druze fled to other parts of Syria; most of those who remained live in a handful of villages in the disputed zone, while only a few live in the narrow remnant ofQuneitra Governorate that is still under effective Syrian control.
Druze celebrating their independence in 1925
The Druze always played a far more important role in Syrian politics than its comparatively small population would suggest. With a community of little more than 100,000 in 1949, or roughly three percent of the Syrian population, the Druze of Syria's southwestern mountains constituted a potent force in Syrian politics and played a leading role in the nationalist struggle against theFrench. Under the military leadership ofSultan Pasha al-Atrash, the Druze provided much of the military force behind theSyrian Revolution of 1925–27. In 1945, Amir Hasan al-Atrash, the paramount political leader of theJebel al-Druze, led the Druze military units in a successful revolt against the French, making the Jebel al-Druze the first and only region in Syria to liberate itself from French rule withoutBritish assistance. At independence the Druze, made confident by their successes, expected that Damascus would reward them for their many sacrifices on the battlefield. They demanded to keep their autonomous administration and many political privileges accorded them by the French and sought generous economic assistance from the newly independent government.[148][page needed]
When a local paper in 1945 reported thatPresidentShukri al-Quwatli (1943–49) had called the Druze a "dangerous minority", Sultan Pasha al-Atrash flew into a rage and demanded a public retraction. If it were not forthcoming, he announced, the Druze would indeed become "dangerous", and a force of 4,000 Druze warriors would "occupy the city of Damascus". Quwwatli could not dismiss Sultan Pasha's threat. The military balance of power in Syria was tilted in favor of the Druze, at least until the military build up during the1948 War in Palestine. One advisor to the Syrian Defense Department warned in 1946 that theSyrian army was "useless", and that the Druze could "take Damascus and capture the present leaders in a breeze".[148][page needed]
During the four years ofAdib Shishakli's rule in Syria (December 1949 to February 1954) (on 25 August 1952:Adib al-Shishakli created theArab Liberation Movement (ALM), a progressive party withpan-Arabist and socialist views),[149] the Druze community was subjected to a heavy attack by the Syrian government. Shishakli believed that among his many opponents in Syria, the Druze were the most potentially dangerous, and he was determined to crush them. He frequently proclaimed: "My enemies are like a serpent: The head is the Jebel al-Druze, the stomachHoms, and the tailAleppo. If I crush the head, the serpent will die." Shishakli dispatched 10,000 regular troops to occupy the Jebel al-Druze. Several towns were bombarded with heavy weapons, killing scores of civilians and destroying many houses. According to Druze accounts, Shishakli encouraged neighboringBedouin tribes to plunder the defenseless population and allowed his own troops to run amok.[148][page needed]
Shishakli launched a brutal campaign to defame the Druze for their religion and politics. He accused the entire community of treason, at times claiming they were in the employ of the British andHashimites, at others that they were fighting forIsrael against theArabs. He even produced a cache of Israeli weapons allegedly discovered in the Jabal. Even more painful for the Druze community was his publication of "falsified Druze religious texts" and false testimonials ascribed to leading Druze sheikhs designed to stir up sectarian hatred. This propaganda also was broadcast in the Arab world, mainlyEgypt. Shishakli was assassinated inBrazil on 27 September 1964 by a Druze seeking revenge for Shishakli's bombardment of the Jebel al-Druze.[148][page needed]
He forcibly integrated minorities into the national Syrian social structure, his "Syrianization" ofAlawite and Druze territories had to be accomplished in part using violence. To this end, al-Shishakli encouraged the stigmatization of minorities. He saw minority demands as tantamount to treason. His increasingly chauvinistic notions ofArab nationalism were predicated on the denial that "minorities" existed in Syria.[150][page needed]
After the Shishakli's military campaign, the Druze community lost much of its political influence, but many Druze military officers played important roles in theBa'ath government currently ruling Syria.[148][page needed]
In 1967, a community of Druze in the Golan Heights came under Israeli control, today numbering 23,000 (in 2019).[151][152][153]
Before theSyrian civil war, it was estimated that around 700,000 Druze lived in Syria in 2010, constituting about 3% of the population.[154] Of these, approximately 337,500 resided in theSuwayda Governorate, which had a Druze majority of around 90% and a significant Christian minority.[155][154] This region accounted for 48.2% of the total Druze population in Syria.[156] Additionally, about 250,000 Druze, or 35.7% of the total Druze population, lived inDamascus and its surrounding areas, includingJaramana,Sahnaya, andJdeidat Artouz. Approximately 30,000 Druze lived on the eastern side ofMount Hermon, while around 25,000 Druze were spread across 14 villages inJabal al-Summaq inIdlib Governorate.[154]
TheQalb Loze massacre was a reported massacre of Syrian Druze on 10 June 2015 in the village ofQalb Loze in Syria's northwesternIdlib Governorate in which 20–24 Druze were killed. On 25 July 2018, a group ofISIS-affiliated attackers entered the Druze city ofSuwayda and initiated aseries of gunfights and suicide bombings on its streets, killing at least 258 people, the vast majority of them civilians.[157]
The Druzite community in Lebanon played an important role in the formation of the modern state of Lebanon,[142] and even though they are a minority they play an important role in the Lebanese political scene. Before and during theLebanese Civil War (1975–90), the Druze were in favor ofPan-Arabism andPalestinian resistance represented by thePLO. Most of the community supported theProgressive Socialist Party formed by their leaderKamal Jumblatt and they fought alongside other leftist and Palestinian parties against theLebanese Front that was mainly constituted ofChristians. At the time, the Lebanese government and economy were running under the significant influence ofelites within theMaronite Christian community.[161][162] After the assassination ofKamal Jumblatt on 16 March 1977, his sonWalid Jumblatt took the leadership of the party and played an important role in preserving his father's legacy after winning theMountain War and sustained the existence of the Druze community during the sectarian bloodshed that lasted until 1990.
In August 2001,Maronite CatholicPatriarch Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir toured the predominantly DruzeChouf region ofMount Lebanon and visitedMukhtara, the ancestral stronghold of Druze leader Walid Jumblatt. The tumultuous reception that Sfeir received not only signified a historic reconciliation betweenMaronites and Druze, who had fought a bloody war in 1983–1984, but underscored the fact that the banner of Lebanese sovereignty had broad multi-confessional appeal[163] and was a cornerstone for theCedar Revolution in 2005. Jumblatt's post-2005 position diverged sharply from the tradition of his family. He also accusedDamascus of being behind the 1977 assassination of his father, Kamal Jumblatt, expressing for the first time what many knew he privately suspected. TheBBC describes Jumblatt as "the leader of Lebanon's most powerful Druze clan and heir to a leftist political dynasty".[164] The second largest political party supported by Druze is theLebanese Democratic Party led byPrince Talal Arslan, the son of Lebanese independence heroEmir Majid Arslan.
The Druze community is primarily located in the rural and mountainous regions to the east and south of Beirut.[165] They represent approximately 5.2 percent of Lebanon's population and are spread across 136 villages in areas such asHasbaya,Rashaya,Chouf,Aley,Marjeyoun andBeirut. The Druze make up the majority inAley,Baakleen,Hasbaya andRashaya. Specifically, they constitute over half of the population in theAley District, about a third in theRashaya District, and around a quarter in both theChouf andMatn Districts.[166]
Israeli Druze Scouts march to Jethro's tomb. Today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to such "Druze Zionist" movements.[167]
The Druzites form a religious minority inIsrael of more than 100,000, mostly residing in the north of the country.[168] In 2004, there were 102,000 Druze living in the country.[169] In 2010, the population of Israeli Druze citizens grew to over 125,000. At the end of 2018, there were 143,000 in Israel and theIsraeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights.[9] MostIsraeli Druze identify ethnically as Arabs.[170] Today, thousands of Israeli Druze belong to "DruzeZionist" movements.[167]
According to the IsraeliCentral Bureau of Statistics census in 2020, the Druze make up about 7.6% of theArab citizens of Israel.[171] By the end of 2019, around 81% of the Israeli Druze population resided in theNorthern District, while 19% were in theHaifa District. The largest Druze communities are found inDaliyat al-Karmel andYirka (also known as Yarka).[172] The Druze live in 19 towns and villages scattered across the mountaintops in northern Israel, either in exclusively Druze areas or in mixed communities withChristians andMuslims.[172]
The Galilean Druze and Druze of theHaifa region received Israeli citizenship automatically in 1948. After Israel captured theGolan Heights from Syria in 1967 and annexed it to Israel in 1981, theDruze of the Golan Heights were offered full Israeli citizenship under theGolan Heights Law. Most declined Israeli citizenship and retainSyrian citizenship and identity and are treated as permanent residents of Israel.[173] As of 2011, fewer than 10% of the Druze population in the Golan Heights had accepted Israeli citizenship.[174]
In 1957, the Israeli government designated the Druze a distinct religious community at the request of its communal leaders.[175][176] The Druze areArabic-speaking citizens of Israel and serve in theIsrael Defense Forces, just as most citizens do in Israel. Members of the community have attained top positions in Israeli politics and public service.[177] The number of Druze parliament members usually exceeds their proportion in the Israeli population, and they are integrated within several political parties.
Some scholars maintain that Israel has tried to separate the Druze from other Arab communities, and that the effort has influenced the way Israel's Druze perceive their modern identity.[66][67] Survey data suggests that Israeli Druze prioritize their identity first as Druze (religiously), second as Arabs (culturally and ethnically), and third as Israelis (citizenship-wise).[35] A small minority of them identify asPalestinians, distinguishing them from the majority of otherArab citizens of Israel, who predominantly identify as Palestinians.[169]
Venezuela hosts the largest Druze communities outside the Middle East,[179][180] estimated at 60,000 individuals.[83] Most of them trace their ancestry back to Lebanon and Syria. More than 200,000 people from theSuwayda area hold Venezuelan citizenship, the majority of whom belong to theSyria's Druze sect and immigrated to Venezuela in the past century.[181] Arab immigration to Venezuela started as early as the 19th and 20th centuries, with migrants primarily hailing from theOttoman provinces ofLebanon,Syria, andPalestine. They settled predominantly inCaracas, and have significantly influencedVenezuelan culture, particularly in terms ofArabic food and music. Religiously, theArab-Venezuelans community consists mainly of Druze and Christians, who are affiliated with theRoman Catholic,Eastern Orthodox andEastern Rite Catholic Churches.[182] The early Druze migrants toVenezuela assimilated well into the local population, with some even convertingCatholicism.[183] Nevertheless, many retained a strong Druze andArab identity, along with adherence to Druze values. A prominent example of Druze influence in Venezuela is the former vice president,Tareck El Aissami, who is of Druze descent.[10][184] Other notable Venezuelan figures of Druze origin includeHaifa El Aissami andTarek William Saab.[185]
TheUnited States is the second largest home of Druze communities outside the Middle East after Venezuela.[186] Estimates vary between about 30,000[187] and 50,000[186] Druzes in the United States, with the largest concentration inSouthern California.[187] American Druze are mostly ofLebanese andSyrian descent.[187]Members of the Druze faith face the difficulty of finding a Druze partner and practicingendogamy; marriage outside the Druze faith is strongly discouraged according to the Druze doctrine. They also face the pressure of keeping the religion alive because many Druze immigrants to theUnited States converted toProtestantism, becoming communicants of thePresbyterian orMethodist churches.[188][189]
Beliefs
God
The Druze conception of the deity is declared by them to be one of strict and uncompromising unity. The main Druze doctrine states thatGod isboth transcendent and immanent, in which he is above all attributes, but at the same time, he is present.[190]
In their desire to maintain a rigid confession of unity, they stripped from God all attributes (tanzīh). In God,there are no attributes distinct from his essence. He is wise, mighty, and just, not by wisdom, might, and justice, but by his own essence. God is "the whole of existence", rather than merely "above existence" or on his throne, which would make him "limited". There is neither "how", "when", nor "where" about him; in this way, he is incomprehensible.[191][page needed]
In this dogma, they are similar to the semi-philosophical, semi-religious body which flourished underAl-Ma'mun and was known by the name ofMu'tazila and the fraternal order of theBrethren of Purity (Ikhwan al-Ṣafa).[112][page needed]
Unlike theMu'tazila, and similar to some branches ofSufism, the Druze believe in the concept ofTajalli (meaning "theophany").[191][page needed]Tajalli is often misunderstood by scholars and writers and is usually confused with the concept ofincarnation.
[Incarnation] is the core spiritual beliefs in the Druze and some other intellectual and spiritual traditions ... In a mystical sense, it refers to the light of God experienced by certain mystics who have reached a high level of purity in their spiritual journey. Thus, God is perceived as theLahut [the divine] who manifests His Light in the Station (Maqaam) of theNasut [material realm] without the Nasut becoming Lahut. This is like one's image in the mirror: One is in the mirror, but does not become the mirror. The Druze manuscripts are emphatic and warn against the belief that the Nasut is God ... Neglecting this warning, individual seekers, scholars, and other spectators have considered al-Hakim and other figures divine. ... In the Druze scriptural view, Tajalli takes a central stage. One author comments that Tajalli occurs when the seeker's humanity is annihilated so that divine attributes and light are experienced by the person.[191][page needed]
Scriptures
Druze sacred texts include theQuran and theEpistles of Wisdom.[192] Other ancient Druze writings include theRasa'il al-Hind (Epistles of India) and the previously lost (or hidden) manuscripts such asal-Munfarid bi-Dhatihi andal-Sharia al-Ruhaniyya as well as others includingdidactic andpolemictreatises.[193]
Reincarnation is a paramount principle in the Druze faith.[194] Reincarnations occur instantly at one's death because there is an eternal duality of the body and the soul and it is impossible for the soul to exist without the body. A human soul will transfer only to a human body, in contrast to the Neoplatonic, Hindu and Buddhist belief systems, according to which souls can transfer to any living creature. Furthermore, a male Druze can be reincarnated only as another male Druze and a female Druze only as another female Druze. A Druze cannot be reincarnated in the body of a non-Druze. Additionally, souls cannot be divided and the number of souls existing in the universe is finite.[195] The cycle of rebirth is continuous and the only way to escape is through successive reincarnations. When this occurs, the soul is united with the Cosmic Mind and achieves the ultimate happiness.[39]
Pact of Time Custodian
The Pact of Time Custodian (Mithāq Walī al-zamān) is considered the entrance to the Druze religion, and they believe that all Druze in their past lives have signed this Charter, and Druze believe that this Charter embodies with human souls after death.
I rely on our Moula Al-Hakim the lonely God, the individual, the eternal, who is out of couples and numbers, (someone) the son of (someone) has approved recognition enjoined on himself and on his soul, in a healthy of his mind and his body, permissibility aversive is obedient and not forced, to repudiate from all creeds, articles and all religions and beliefs on the differences varieties, and he does not know something except obedience of almighty Moulana Al-Hakim, and obedience is worship and that it does not engage in worship anyone ever attended or wait, and that he had handed his soul and his body and his money and all he owns to almighty Maulana Al-Hakim.[196][clarification needed]
The Druze also use a similar formula, called al-'ahd, when one is initiated into the ʻUqqāl.[197]
The prayer-houses of the Druze are calledkhilwa,khalwa, khilwat orkhalwat. The primarysanctuary of the Druze is atKhalwat al-Bayada.[198]
Esotericism
The Druze believe that many teachings given by prophets, religious leaders and holy books haveesoteric meanings preserved for those of intellect, in which some teachings aresymbolic andallegorical in nature, and divide the understanding of holy books and teachings into three layers.
These layers, according to the Druze, are as follows:
The obvious orexoteric(zahir), accessible to anyone who can read or hear;
The hidden oresoteric(batin), accessible to those who are willing to search and learn through the concept ofexegesis;
And the hidden of the hidden, a concept known asanagoge, inaccessible to all but a few really enlightened individuals who truly understand the nature of the universe.[199]
Druze do not believe that the esoteric meaning abrogates or necessarily abolishes the exoteric one. Hamza bin Ali refutes such claims by stating that if the esoteric interpretation oftaharah (purity) is purity of the heart and soul, it doesn't mean that a person can discard his physical purity, assalat (prayer) is useless if a person is untruthful in his speech and that the esoteric and exoteric meanings complement each other.[200]
The Druze follow seven moral precepts or duties that are considered the core of the faith.[39]The Seven Druze precepts are:[201]
Veracity in speech and the truthfulness of the tongue.
Protection and mutual aid to the brethren in faith.
Renunciation of all forms of former worship (specifically, invalid creeds) and false belief.
Repudiation of the devil (Iblis), and all forces of evil (translated from ArabicToghyan, meaning "despotism").
Confession of God's unity.
Acquiescence in God's acts no matter what they be.
Absolute submission and resignation to God's divine will in both secret and public.
Taqiyya
Complicating their identity is the custom oftaqiyya—concealing or disguising their beliefs when necessary—that they adopted fromIsmailism and the esoteric nature of the faith, in which many teachings are kept secretive. This is done in order to keep the religion from those who are not yet prepared to accept the teachings and therefore could misunderstand it, as well as to protect the community when it is in danger. Some claim to be Muslim or Christian in order to avoid persecution; some do not.[202] Druze in different states can have radically different lifestyles.[203]
Theophany
Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts.[5] He proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man.[204][205][206]Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah is an important figure in the Druze faith whose eponymous founderad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018.[204][207] The Druze believe that al-Hākim will return at the end of times to judge the world and establish his kingdom, whileHamza ibn Ali is considered a reincarnation of Jesus, the Universal Mind'Aql, closely associated with al-Hākim.[44]
The author of the epistle "The Report of the Jewish and Christians" (Khabar al-Yahud wal Nasara), part of first volume of theEpistles of Wisdom, appears to have been a Druze individual. The account itself identifies him asHamza ibn Ali, a supporter ofal-Hakim'sdivinity and the founder of the Druze faith.[208]
Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes asghulat of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliphal-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam.[209] He also added that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith "seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism".[210]
Recognition of prophets in the Druze religion is divided into three sort-of subcategories, the prophet themselves (natiq), their disciples (asas), and witnesses to their message (hujjah).
The Druze allow divorce, although it is discouraged, and circumcision is not necessary.Apostasy is forbidden,[215] and they usually have religious services on Thursday evenings.[38] Druze follow SunniHanafi law on issues which their own faith has no particular rulings about.[216][217]
Formal Druze worship is confined to weekly meeting on Thursday evenings, during which all members of community gather together to discuss local issues before those not initiated into the secrets of the faith (the juhhāl, or the ignorant) are dismissed, and those who are "uqqāl" or "enlightened" (those few initiated in the Druze holy books) remain to read and study.[38]
Religious symbol
The Druze strictly avoidiconography, but use five colors ("Five Limits"خمس حدودkhams ḥudūd) as a religious symbol:[218][219] green, red, yellow, blue, and white. The five limits were listed byIsmail at-Tamimi (d. 1030) in theEpistle of the Candle (risalat ash-sham'a) as:
First limit: Hamza Ibn Ali (حمزة إبن علي إبن أحمد) (or Jesus according to other sources)[220]
Second limit: Ismail ibn Muhamed ibn Hamed at-Tamimi (Ismail at-Tamimi) (إسماعيل إبن محمد بن حامد التميمي)
Third limit: Muhamed ibn Wahb (محمد إبن وهب)
Fourth limit (as-Sabiq the anterior): Salama ibn abd al-Wahhab (سلامة إبن عبد الوهاب)
Fifth limit (al-llahiq the posterior): Ali ibn Ahmed as-Samouqi (علي إبن أحمد السموقي)
Each of the colors representing the five limits pertains to a metaphysical power calledḥadd, literally "a limit", as in the distinctions that separate humans from animals, or the powers that make humans the animalistic body. Eachḥadd is color-coded in the following manner:
Green forʻAql "the Universal Mind/Intelligence/Nous",
Blue forSābiq (السابق) "the anterior/potentiality/cause/precedent", the first intellect.
White foral-llahiq (اللاحق) "the posterior/future/effect/Immanence".
The mind generatesqualia and gives consciousness.[221] The soul embodies the mind and is responsible for transmigration and the character of oneself. The word, which is the atom of language, communicates qualia between humans and represents the platonic forms in the sensible world. TheSābiq andTālī is the ability to perceive and learn from the past and plan for the future and predict it.
The colors can be arranged in vertically descending stripes (as a flag), or afive-pointed star.[222] The stripes are a diagrammatic cut of the spheres in neoplatonic philosophy, while the five-pointed star embodies thegolden ratio,phi, as a symbol oftemperance and a life of moderation.
Prayer houses and holy places
Jethro shrine and temple of Druze inHittin, northernIsrael
Holy places of the Druze are archaeological sites important to the community and associated with religious holidays;[223] the most notable example beingNabi Shu'ayb, dedicated toJethro, who is a central figure of the Druze religion. Druze make pilgrimages to this site on the holiday ofZiyarat al-Nabi Shu'ayb.[224]
One of the most important features of the Druze village having a central role in social life is thekhilwa orkhalwat—a house of prayer, retreat and religious unity. Thekhalwat may be known asmajlis in local languages.[225]
The second type of religious shrine is one associated with the anniversary of a historic event or death of a prophet. If it is amausoleum the Druze call itmazār and if it is ashrine they call itmaqām. The holy places become more important to the community in times of adversity and calamity. The holy places andshrines of the Druze are scattered in various villages, in places where they are protected and cared for. They are found inSyria,Lebanon andIsrael.[223]
The Druze do not recognize any religious hierarchy.[226] As such, there is no "Druze clergy". Those few initiated in the Druze holy books are calledعقالʻuqqāl ("the wise"),[227] while the regular members of the group are calledجهالjuhhāl ("the ignorant").[228] Some find this classification disparaging however, and as such, terms likeروحانيrūḥāniyy, meaning "(concerned with the) spiritual", andجسمانيjismāniyy, meaning "(concerned with the) physical", are also used.
Given the strict religious, intellectual and spiritual requirements, most of the Druze are not initiated and might be referred to asal-Juhhāl (جهال), literally "the Ignorant", but in practice referring to the non-initiated Druze.[229] However, that term is seldom used by the Druze. Those Druze are not granted access to the Druze holy literature or allowed to attend the initiated religious meetings of theʻuqqāl. The "juhhāl" are the vast majority of the Druze community.[226] The cohesiveness and frequent inter-community social interaction, however, enables most Druze to have an idea about their broad ethical requirements and have some sense of what their theology consists of (albeit often flawed).
The initiated religious group, which includes both men and women (less than 10% of the population), is calledal-ʻUqqāl (عقال "the Knowledgeable Initiates"). They might or might not dress differently, although most wear a costume that was characteristic ofmountain people in previous centuries. Women can opt to wearal-mandīl, a loose whiteveil, especially in the presence of other people. They wearal-mandīl on their heads to cover their hair and wrap it around their mouths. They wear black shirts and long skirts covering their legs to their ankles. Maleʻuqqāl often grow mustaches, and wear dark Levantine-Turkish traditional dresses, called theshirwal, with white turbans that vary according to the seniority of theʻuqqāl. Traditionally the Druze women have played an important role both socially and religiously inside the community.[226]
Al-ʻuqqāl have equal rights toal-Juhhāl, but establish a hierarchy of respect based on religious service. The most influential ofal-ʻuqqāl becomeAjawīd, recognized religious leaders, and from this group the spiritual leaders of the Druze are assigned. While theShaykh al-ʻAql, which is an official position in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel, is elected by the local community and serves as the head of the Druze religious council, judges from the Druze religious courts are usually elected for this position. Unlike the spiritual leaders, the authority of theShaykh al-ʻAql is limited to the country he is elected in, though in some instances spiritual leaders are elected to this position.[230]
The Druze believe in the unity of God, and are often known as the "People of Monotheism" or simply "Monotheists".[231] Theirtheology has aNeo-Platonic view about how God interacts with the world through emanations and is similar to somegnostic and otheresoteric sects. Druze philosophy also showsSufi influences.[232]
Druze principles focus on honesty, loyalty,filial piety,altruism, patriotic sacrifice, andmonotheism.[233] They rejectnicotine,alcohol, and other drugs and often, the consumption of pork (to the Uqqāl and not necessarily to the Juhhāl).[234] Druze rejectpolygamy, believe inreincarnation, and are not obliged to observe most of the religious rituals.[235] The Druze believe that rituals are symbolic and have an individualistic effect on the person, for which reason Druze are free to perform them, or not. The community does celebrateEid al-Adha, however, considered their most significant holiday; though their form of observance is different compared to that of most Muslims.[236]
Culture
A Druze woman preparing a traditional dish
The Druze community maintainsArabic language andculture as core elements of their identity.[18][33][35] Arabic is their primary language, and Druze cultural practices and traditions are deeply intertwined with the broader Arab heritage.[82][237] While the Druze have their unique religious beliefs and customs, they actively preserve and contribute to Arabic cultural and social life in theLevant.[33] They have had a significant impact on the region's history and culture and continue to play a notable political role.[58]
Traditionally, most Druze are not initiated into the deeper secrets of the faith and are considered "juhhāl", or "the ignorant". Only a minority, known as the "uqqāl" or "enlightened," are initiated into the Druze holy books and engage in religious study. The religious life of the average Druze ("juhhāl") revolves around a very small number of events—birth and circumcision, engagement and marriage, death and burial—and is devoid of special Druze prayers or worship.[238] Marriage outside the Druze faith is forbidden,[84] and if a Druze marries a non-Druze, the Druze may be ostracized and marginalized by their community.[239] Because a non-Druze partner cannot convert to Druze faith, the couple cannot have Druze children, because the Druze faith can only be passed on through birth to two Druze parents.[13]
Circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze.[240] The procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition, and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.[241] There is no special date for this act in the Druze faith: male Druze infants are usually circumcised shortly after birth,[238] however some remain uncircumcised until the age of ten or older.[238] Some Druze do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".[242]
Druze communities are often close-knit and maintain a strong sense of identity and solidarity. A key aspect of their religious practice includesziyarat, or visits to holy places. One of the most significant events in Druze religious life is the annual pilgrimage to theShrine of Shu'ayb, observed between April 25 and 28.[243] This pilgrimage is dedicated to Shu'ayb, whom Druze believe to be a prophet and whose purported tomb is located at this shrine. This event is so important that it is officially recognized as a public holiday in Israel.[243]
Language
The mother tongue of Druze in Syria, Lebanon and Israel isLevantine Arabic,[237] except those born and living in the Druze diaspora such asVenezuela, where Arabic was not taught or spoken at home.[237] The Druze Arabic dialect, especially in the rural areas, is often different from the otherregional Arabic dialects.[237] Druze Arabic dialect is distinguished from others by retention of the phoneme/q/,[237] the use of which by Druze is particularly prominent in the mountains and less so in urban areas.
TheDruze citizens of Israel are Arabic in language andculture,[18] and linguistically speaking, the majority of them are fluently bilingual, speaking both a Central Northern Levantine Arabic dialect andHebrew. In Druze Arab homes and towns in Israel, the primary language spoken is Arabic, while some Hebrew words have entered thecolloquial Arabic dialect.[244] They often useHebrew characters to write their Arabic dialect online.[245]
Various scholars agree that the Druze community's cultural identity is deeply intertwined with theirArab heritage. HistorianNejla Abu-Izzedin andKamal Salibi both argue that the Druze are profoundly embedded within the Arab cultural framework, as demonstrated by their common language and social customs.[246][247] They assert that this integration is apparent through the Druze's active participation in regional traditions and their assimilation into Arab society, despite their distinct religious and philosophical beliefs.[248][249]
Scholar Robert Brenton Betts explains that the Druze social structure is characterized by a strong sense of community and the leadership of religious elders known as 'sheikhs'. These leaders are pivotal in guiding both the spiritual and social aspects of Druze life, which is crucial for preserving their unique identity.[250] Betts also points to specific Druze practices, such as the annual pilgrimage to theShrine of Shu'ayb, as examples of how these traditions, along with the role of the sheikhs, are deeply ingrained in Druze social life. He argues that these practices are not just religious rituals but are fundamental to reinforcing Druze unity and continuity.[251]
According to some scholars, the Druze cultural identity is shaped by their interactions with bothChristian and Muslim communities, reflecting asynthesis of religious and cultural influences. Historians notes that the Druze have historically maintained apositive relationship with Christians, as evidenced by shared traditions and social practices inMount Lebanon.[252][253] This interaction has led to overlapping symbols, customs, mutual veneration of saints and their shrines, and shared terminology for God.[254][255] Sites such as theChurch of Saidet et Tallé inDeir el Qamar, historically a popularMarian pilgrimage site among the Druze, exemplify this cultural exchange.[256] The Druze also venerate Christian saints likeSaint George and theProphet Elijah, admired for their "bravery and warrior-like qualities".[254] Scholar Pierre-Yves Beaurepaire observes that thesewarrior saints resonate with the Druze due to their parallels with Druze militarized traditions.[254] Thebaptism of children, in line with Christian tradition, was common among prominent Lebanese Druze families. Historian Aharon Layish notes that there is clear evidence of Druzes inLebanon during the Ottoman period who posed as Christians for practical reasons.[257]
Conversely, despite sharing historical roots with Muslims, the Druze often experience a more complex relationship with Muslim communities due to their distinct religious beliefs and practices.[253] Historically, the Druze faced significant persecution from Muslim regimes, which led them to keep their religious beliefs secret.[258][259][260] According to Druze narrative, theseacts of persecution were aimed at eradicating the entire community.[261][page needed] This narrative has shaped the Druze sense of identity and their awareness of survival.[261][page needed] As a survival strategy, some Druze have historically posed as Muslims, a practice known astaqiya.[262] This concealment has led to asynthesis of Druze religious practice and cultural identity with Islamic elements, as noted by scholars.[263]
Cuisine
Druze women making "Druze pita" (Saj bread) inIsfiya, Israel
Druze cuisine isArab cuisine,[264] and shares many similarities with otherLevantine cuisines. It features a rich array of grains, meat, potato, cheese, bread,whole grains,fruits,vegetables, freshfish and tomatoes. A hallmark of Druze and Levantine cuisine ismeze includingtabbouleh,hummus andbaba ghanoush.Kibbeh nayyeh is also a popular mezze among the Druze. Other well-known dishes among Druzes includefalafel,sfiha,shawarma,dolma,kibbeh,kusa mahshi,shishbarak,muhammara, andmujaddara. Among the popular traditional Arabic dessert by the Druze isKnafeh.[265] In Israel, theSaj bread is known as "Druze Pita" as it was easier for Israeli Jews to identify with Druze than with Arabs.[266] It is apita filled withlabneh (thick yoghurt) and topped witholive oil andza’atar,[267] and a very popular bread in Israel.[268] Al-Meleh a popular dish among Druze inHauran region (Suwayda Governorate), cooked in a pressure cooker and served on huge special plates at weddings, holidays, and other special occasions. And consists of bulgur wheat immersed in ghee with lamb and yogurt, and served hot with fried kibbeh and vegetables.[269]
For reasons that remain unclear, theMulukhiyah dish was banned by the Fatimid CaliphAl-Hakim bi-Amr Allah sometime during his reign (996–1021). While the ban was eventually lifted after the end of his reign, the Druze, who hold Al-Hakim in high regard and give him quasi-divine authority,[206] continue to respect the ban, and do not eatMulukhiyah of any kind to this day.[270]
Maté (in Levantine Arabic,متة /mæte/) is a popular drink consumed by the Druze brought to theLevant bySyrian migrants from Argentina in the 19th century.[271] Maté is made by steeping dried leaves of theSouth Americanyerba-maté plant in hot water and is served with a metal straw (بمبيجةbambīja orمصاصةmaṣṣāṣah) from a gourd (فنجانfinjān orقَرْعَةqarʻah). Maté is often the first item served when entering a Druze home. It is a social drink and can be shared between multiple participants. After each drinker, the metal straw is cleaned with lemon rind. Traditional snacks eaten with maté include raisins, nuts, dried figs, biscuits, and chips.[272][271]
The Druze rejection ofpolygamy, unlike intraditional Islamic traditions, reflects a significantinfluence from Christianity on their faith.[44] While the Druze cite certainQuranic verses to justify their position, it more closely mirrors the Christian perspective on marriage.[235] Additionally, the practice ofmonasticism by some Druze sheikhs is highly regarded within their community. It's not uncommon for a sheikh to request celibacy from his fiancée, and many Druze sheikhs remain unmarried throughout their lives.[273] In Druze belief, sex is seen not as an end in itself but as a means ofreproduction, with certain sexual forms consideredsinful.[273]
The Druze doctrine does not permit outsiders to convert to their religion, as only one who is born to Druze parents can be considered a Druze. Marriage outside the Druze faith is uncommon and strongly discouraged for both males and females. If a Druze individual, whether male or female, marries a non-Druze, they may face ostracism and marginalization from their community.[37] Since a non-Druze partner cannot convert to the Druze faith, the couple cannot have Druze children, as the Druze faith can only be inherited from two Druze parents at birth.[274] Marrying a non-Druze, whether male or female, is viewed asapostasy from the Druze religion.[215] The Druze community holds a negative perception ofapostates who marry outside the religion. Consequently, those who leave the Druze religion due to interfaith marriage are forced to leave their village and are exiled to distant, non-Druze areas. This religious and social pressure leads to their isolation and classification as outcasts within their Druze community.[215]
Druze and other religions
Relationship with Muslims
The Druze faith is often classified as a branch ofIsma'ilism; although according to various scholars Druze faith "diverge substantially from Islam, bothSunni andShia".[275][276] Even though the faith originally developed out ofIsmaili Islam, most Druze do not identify asMuslims,[277][32][278][279][280][281] and they do not accept thefive pillars of Islam.[31] Historian David R. W. Bryer defines the Druzes asghulat of Isma'ilism, since they exaggerated the cult of the caliphal-Hakim bi-Amr Allah and considered him divine; he also defines the Druzes as a religion that deviated from Islam.[209] He also added that as a result of this deviation, the Druze faith "seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism".[210]
Since Druze emerged from Islam and share certain beliefs with Islam, its position of whether it is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial among Muslim scholars.[289] Druze are not considered Muslims by those belonging to orthodox Islamic schools of thought.[290][291][292][293][294]Ibn Taymiyya, a prominent Muslimscholarmuhaddith, dismissed the Druze as non-Muslims,[295] and hisfatwa cited that Druze: "Are not at the level of ′Ahl al-Kitāb (People of the Book) normushrikin (polytheists). Rather, they are from the most deviant kuffār (Infidel) ... Their women can be taken as slaves and their property can be seized ... they are to be killed whenever they are found and cursed as they described ... It is obligatory to kill their scholars and religious figures so that they do not misguide others",[113] which in that setting would have legitimized violence against them asapostates.[296][297] TheOttoman Empire often relied on Ibn Taymiyya's religious ruling to justify their persecution of Druze.[298] In contrast, according toIbn Abidin, whose workRadd al-Muhtar 'ala al-Durr al-Mukhtar is still considered the authoritative text ofHanafi fiqh today,[299] the Druze are neither Muslims nor apostates.[300]
In 1959, in an ecumenical move driven byEgyptian presidentGamal Abdel Nasser's effort to broaden his political appeal after the establishment of theUnited Arab Republic betweenEgypt andSyria in 1958,[301] the Islamic scholarMahmud Shaltut atAl Azhar University inCairo classified the Druze as Muslims,[302] even though most Druze no longer consider themselves Muslim.[303][304] Thefatwa declares that the Druze are Muslims because they recite the twofoldShahada, and believe in theQur'an andmonotheism and do not oppose Islam in word or deed.[305] Thisfatwa was not accepted by all in the Islamic world, many dissenting scholars have argued the Druze recite theShahada as a form oftaqiya; a precautionary dissimulation or denial of religious belief and practice in the face of persecution. Some sects of Islam, including all Shia denominations, don't recognize the religious authority ofAl Azhar University, those that do sometimes challenge the religious legitimacy of Shaltut's fatwa because it was issued for political reasons, as Gamal Abdel Nasser saw it as a tool to spread his appeal and influence across the entireArab world.[306][263]
In 2012, due to a drift towardsSalafism in Al-Azhar, and the ascension of theMuslim Brotherhood into Egyptian political leadership, the dean of the Faculty of Islamic Studies at Al-Azhar issued a fatwa strongly opposed to the1959 fatwa.[307]
Both religions venerateShuaib andMuhammad: Shuaib (Jethro) is revered as the chief prophet in the Druze religion,[308] and in Islam he is considered aprophet of God. Muslims regard Muhammad as the final and paramount prophet sent by God,[309][full citation needed][310] to the Druze, Muhammad is exalted as one of the seven prophets sent by God in different periods of history.[211][212][42]
In terms of religious comparison,Islamic schools and branches do not believe inreincarnation,[51] a paramount tenet of the Druze faith.[194] Islam teachesdawah, whereas the Druze do not accept converts to their faith. Marriage outside the Druze faith is rare and is strongly discouraged. Islamic schools and branches allow for divorce and permit mento be married to multiple women, contrary to the views of the Druze inmonogamousmarriage and not allowingdivorce. Differences between Islamic schools and branches and Druze include their belief in thetheophany,[51]Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts;[5] he proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man,Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[204][205][206] Within Islam, however, such a concept of theophany is a denial of monotheism.
The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Islam,[42][43] and other religious beliefs. Druze Sacred texts include the Qur'an and theEpistles of Wisdom (rasail al-hikmaرسائل الحكمة)[192] The Druze community does celebrateEid al-Adha as their most significant holiday; though their form of observance is different compared to that of most Muslims.[236] The Druze faith does not followSharia nor any of the Five Pillars of Islam save reciting theShahada.[262] Scholars argue that Druze recite theShahada in order to protect their religion and their own safety, and to avoidpersecution by Muslims.[262]
Left to right: Christian mountain dweller fromZahlé, Christian mountain dweller ofZgharta, and aLebanese Druze man in traditional attire (1873).
Druze doctrine teaches that Christianity is to be "esteemed and praised" as theGospel writers are regarded as "carriers of wisdom".[319] The Druze faith incorporates some elements of Christianity,[42][43] in addition to adoption of Christian elements on theEpistles of Wisdom.[320][44] The full Druze canon or Druze scripture (Epistles of Wisdom) includes theOld Testament,[321] theNew Testament,[321] theQuran andphilosophical works byPlato and those influenced bySocrates among works from otherreligions andphilosophers.[321] The Druze faith shows influence ofChristian monasticism, among other religious practices.[232][44] Some scholars suggest thatearly ChristianGnostic beliefs might have influenced Druze theology, particularly in concepts ofdivine knowledge andreincarnation.[44] These influences and incorporations of Christian elements encompass the adoption of the concept ofChristianizing al-Mahdi's persona among the Druze, as well as the integration of verses from theBible concerning the Messiah by certain Druze founders.[44]
Both faiths give a prominent place toJesus:[211][212] In Christianity, Jesus is the central figure, seen as the messiah. To the Druze, Jesus is an important prophet of God,[211][212] being among the seven prophets (including Muhammad) who appeared in different periods of history.[330] The Druze revere Jesus "the son ofJoseph andMary" and hisfour disciples, who wrote the Gospels.[331] According to the Druze manuscripts Jesus is the Greatest Imam and the incarnation of UltimateReason (Akl) on earth and the first cosmic principle (Hadd),[331][220] and regards Jesus andHamza ibn Ali as the incarnations of one of the five great celestial powers, who form part of their system.[332] In the Druze tradition, Jesus is known under three titles: the True Messiah (al-Masih al-Haq), the Messiah of all Nations (Masih al-Umam), and the Messiah of Sinners. This is due, respectively, to the belief that Jesus delivered the true Gospel message, the belief that he was the Saviour of all nations, and the belief that he offers forgiveness.[333]
The relationship between the Druze andJews has been controversial,[337]Antisemitic material is contained in the Druze literature such as theEpistles of Wisdom; for example in an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druze,Baha al-Din al-Muqtana,[338] probably written sometime between AD 1027 and AD 1042, accused the Jews ofcrucifying Jesus.[339] In other epistles, Jews are depicted negatively as "morally corrupt and murderers of prophets", particularly in chapters 13–14 of theEpistles of Wisdom.[340] The epistle "Excuses and Warnings" predicts that, as a sign of the end times, Jews will seize control ofJerusalem and seek revenge on its inhabitants as well as those ofAcre. Afterwards, Messiah Jesus will expel the Jews from Jerusalem due to their spread of moral corruption worldwide. Christians will then dominate Muslims until theDay of Judgment, when divine judgment by Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah will occur.[340][341]
On the other hand,Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish traveler[342][better source needed] from the 12th century, pointed out that the Druze maintained good commercial relations with the Jews nearby, and according to him this was because the Druze liked the Jewish people.[343] Yet, the Jews and Druze lived isolated from each other, except in a few mixed towns such asDeir al-Qamar andPeki'in.[343][344] TheDeir el Qamar Synagogue was built in 1638, during the Ottoman era in Lebanon, to serve the local Jewish population, some of whom were part of the immediate entourage of the DruzeEmirFakhr-al-Din II.[citation needed]
During theOttoman period, relations between the Druze of Galilee and the Jewish community were generally strained and marked by conflict.[345] In 1660, during aDruze power struggle in Mount Lebanon, Druze forces destroyed Jewish settlements in the Galilee, includingSafad andTiberias.[346][347] The tension escalated in 1834 during thePeasants' Revolt, whenSafed's Jewish community endured a month-long assault that involved extensive looting, violence, and the destruction of Jewish properties by both Druze and Muslims.[348] During theDruze revolt against the rule ofIbrahim Pasha of Egypt, theJewish community in Safad was attacked by Druze rebels in early July 1838, the violence against the Jews included plundering their homes and desecrating their synagogues.[349][350][351]
Interactions between Jews and Druze were rare before theestablishment of Israel in 1948, as they historically lived isolated from each other.[344][352] During theBritish Mandate for Palestine, the Druze did not embrace the risingArab nationalism of the time or participate in violent confrontations withJewish immigrants. In 1948, many Druze volunteered for the Israeli army and no Druze villages were destroyed or permanently abandoned.[353] Since the establishment of thestate of Israel, the Druze have demonstrated solidarity with Israel and distanced themselves from ArabIslamic radicalism.[354] Israeli Druze male citizens serve in theIsrael Defense Forces.[355] The Jewish-Druze partnership was often referred as "a covenant of blood" (Hebrew:ברית דמים,brit damim) in recognition of the common military yoke carried by the two peoples for the security of the country.[356][339][357] Israeli Druze scholars Kais M. Firro and Rabah Halabi contend that the Israeli narrative of a "special historical bond" or "blood pact" between Druze and Jews is a myth fabricated by early Zionist circles to divide and controlArab religious communities in Israel, with no historical foundation.[68][69] Conversely, the Druze community in Syria, Lebanon, and the Golan Heights generally aligns withArab nationalism and holds predominantlyanti-Zionist views.[358]
From 1957, the Israeli government formally recognized the Druze as a separate religious community,[359] and they are defined as a distinct ethnic group in theIsraeli Ministry of Interior's census registration.[359]Israeli Druze do not consider themselves Muslim, and see their faith as a separate and independent religion.[359] While compared to otherIsraeli Christians andMuslims, Druze place less emphasis on theirArab identity and self-identify more asIsraeli. However, they were less ready for personal relationships withJews compared to Israeli Muslims and Christians.[360] Scholars attribute this trend to cultural differences between Jews and Druze.[361]
A study carried out by th Israeli Druze historian Kais M. Firro examines various theories about the origins of the Druze, including possible connections to theArameans, Arabs,Itureans,Cuthites,Hivites,Armenians,Persians, and Turks. Some suggested a European origin.[364] In the 17th century, there was a prevailing belief in France that the Druze were descendants of a lost army ofEuropean Christiancrusaders.[365] According to this notion, after the fall of the Christian stronghold ofAcre in 1291 and the subsequent persecution by the victoriousMamluks, these crusaders sought refuge in the mountains of Lebanon and settled there permanently.[365]
According to Firro, two main approaches have been used to trace Druze origins. The first examines religious texts and the ethnic backgrounds of the early Druze leaders. The second focuses on the migration and settlement patterns of ancient peoples and tribes in the Druze regions before the 11th century. The third approach relies on anthropometric studies.[364]
The main proponent of the first approach is historianPhilip Hitti, whose theory is a key reference for tracing Druze origins.[366] Hitti proposed that the Druze are a blend ofPersians,Iraqis, andPersianized Arabs who adopted new beliefs. He supported this with three arguments: first, the early founders and disseminators of the Druze religion were ofPersians origin; second, some of the Druze religious lexicon isPersian; and third, the native inhabitants of Wadi al-Taym where Druze faith beliefs first spread, were influenced byPersian and Iraqi or Persianized Arab cultures before 1077.[366] However,Martin Sprengling criticized Hitti's theory, arguing that not all early Druze leaders were of Persian origin—citingBaha al-Din al-Muqtana as an example of Arab origin. Sprengling also noted that Wadi al-Taym's inhabitants before 1077 were mostly pure Arab tribes such as theTanukhids andTaym Allah tribe.[366] He concluded that the Druze are mainly a combination of various ethnic groups, with a major influence from Arabs, particularlysouthern Arabs, along with an indigenous mountain population ofAramaic origin.[63][367] Additionally, Two English researchers,Gertrude Bell andDavid Hogarth, also proposed that the Druze are a blend of Arabs fromSouthern Arabia and the mountain-dwelling Aramaeans.[64]
A photograph from 1938 depicting Druze people fromKanawat inJabal Druze (Hauran), dressed in their traditional clothing
The second approach, used by Druze historians, scholars, intellectuals and clerics, emphasizes the migration and settlement of Arab tribes to highlight the pure Arab lineage of those who adopted Druze beliefs in the 11th century.[63] Proponents argue that the Druze speak a "pure Arab dialect" and are of "pure Arab blood", not mixed with Turkish or other influences, due to their practice of strictendogamy marriage.[63] This view maintains that most Druze are descended from 12 Arab tribes that migrated to Syria before the Islamic period.[63] It relies on historical records, Druze chronicles, and genealogical trees reconstructed by Druze families to trace their ancestry and settlement in Syria.[63] According to Firro, all Druze historians, scholars and leaders inLebanon andSyria consider the Druze to be Arabs, and this view is accepted by the entire Druze community in those countries.[70] In contrast, while mostDruze in Israel consider themselves Arabs, some Israeli Druze politicians have begun to reject the idea of Arabic racial origin as a component of Druze national identity for political reasons.[70]
According to Firro, the third approach in the research on Druze origins is based on the conclusions of researchers and anthropologists. Studies byFelix von Luschan, Arries and Kappers found that Druze in the Levant, along with their Muslim and Christian counterparts, share the same origins.[63] Similarly, Druze historianNejla Abu-Izzedin has concluded that Druze, Christians, and Muslims in the Levant have the same racial background.[63]
According to Druze historian Amin Talea', Druze oral and written traditions recount that twelve Arab tribes converted to Islam and fought alongside Muslim warriors until they were introduced to the Druze religion by preachers sent fromEgypt by the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Talea' adds that, over time, the Druze developed a strong sense of their pure Arab origins, believing that, apart from their unique religious practices, their spiritual and material culture closely mirrored that of the broader population ofGreater Syria.[368]
The Druze faith extended to many areas in the Middle East, but most of the modern Druze can trace their origin to theWadi al-Taym inSouthern Lebanon, which is named after an Arab tribeTaym Allah (or Taym Allat) which, according to Islamic historianal-Tabari, first came from the Arabian Peninsula into the valley of theEuphrates where they had beenChristianized prior to their migration into Lebanon. Many of the Druze feudal families, whose genealogies have been preserved by the two modern Syrian chroniclers Haydar al-Shihabi andAhmad Faris al-Shidyaq, seem also to point in the direction of this origin. Arabian tribes emigrated via thePersian Gulf and stopped in Iraq on their route that would later to lead them to Syria. The first feudal Druze family, theTanukhids, which made for itself a name in fighting the Crusaders was, according to Haydar al-Shihabi, an Arab tribe fromMesopotamia where it occupied the position of a ruling family and apparently was Christianized.[112][page needed]
Travelers likeNiebuhr, and scholars likeMax von Oppenheim, undoubtedly echoing the popular Druze belief regarding their own origin, have classified them asArabs.[64]
The Arabian hypothesis is widely regarded as the leading explanation for the origins of the Druze people among historians, scholars, intellectuals, and religious leaders within the Druze community.[34] This theory suggests that the Druze descended from twelve Arab tribes that migrated to Syria before and during the early Islamic period.[63][64][65] It also serves as the primary framework for understanding their historical and racial origins, as reflected in their oral traditions and written literature. This hypothesis is central to the Druze's self-perception and cultural identity.[33] This view is accepted by the entire Druze community in Syria and Lebanon, as well as by most Druze in Israel.[70] The Arabic language is spoken by the Druze and is also the language in which their sacred texts are written. Scholars who hold this view argue that this linguistic connection underscores the Druze's ethnic Arab identity.
According to Druze historianNejla Abu-Izzedin, the Druze people are of Arab origin, both culturally and historically.[33] She explains that Druze traditions and narratives consistently trace their roots toArab tribes who settled in Syria, some prior to the advent of Islam and others during theMuslim conquest.[64] Abu-Izzedin further notes that when the Druze community was established, its members were spread across a wide area of Syria. The majority of those who embraced the Druze faith were Arab tribes from the northern region, making the Arab elements of the community predominant.[369] According to Abu-Izzedin, "ethnically", the "Wadi al-Taym has been authoritatively stated to be one of the most Arab regions of [geographical]Syria".[370] The area was one of the two most important centers of Druze missionary activity in the 11th century.[370]
Additionally,Abu-Izzedin highlights that the Tanukhids, an Arab tribe, hold a significant place in Druze history.[369] She asserts that the Druze claims of Arab origin were not driven by self-interest, as Arabs were no longer in a dominant position when the Druze community was founded in the 11th century.[371] Furthermore, Druze narratives recount their involvement in pivotal events inArab history.[33] In modern times, the Druze have largely adoptedArab nationalism and played a notable role in theGreat Syrian Revolt of 1920's.[33]
Druze scholarSami Makarem notes that Wadi Taym andsouthern Lebanon (Jabal Amel) were pivotal centers for Druze missionary activity in the 11th century, inhabited by Arab tribes.[65] He explains that Druze oral traditions and religious documents suggest that most Druze ancestors came from twelve Arab tribes inMaarat al-Numan during the early period of Islam and its conquests. Later, they migrated and settled in Lebanon.[65] Makarem highlights the Druze's strong Arab heritage, noting that early Druze followers were predominantly of Arab descent.[65] He also points out that many tribes settling in theLevant before Islam came from southern Arabia, includingYamani andQaysi tribes. According to Makarem, Druze belief links their ancestry to tribes that lived in [geographical]Syria, some before Islam and others arriving during the conquest.[65]
Israeli Druze historianSalman Hamud Fallah asserted that the Druze people of today originated from theArabian Peninsula. He noted that some of their ancestors came from the northern part of the peninsula, while others came from the southern region, specificallyYemen.[372] In addition, Israeli Druze historian Yusri Hazran describes the Druze narrative, which holds that twelve Arab tribes migrated into the Syrian region either before the rise of Islam or during the early Islamic period. These tribes were predominantly ofYamani tribes, with theTanukhids being the most dominant among them. Subsequently, these tribes adopted the Druze doctrine. Hazran affirms that this narrative is recognized within Druze doctrine and its scriptures.[373][374]
Druze researchers and historians from Israel, such as Kais M. Firro, Rabah Halabi, Munir Fakhr El-Din, and Afifa E. Kheir, confirm that the Druze are Arabs and note that this was not a contentious issue in Israel before 1962.[70][68][375] Halabi observes that Israeli policies aimed at granting the Druze a distinct community status and political identity led some Druze to see this separate "Druze-Israeli identity" as an ethnic marker forsocial integration within Israeli society.[69] Firro argues that efforts to create a separate Druze identity distinct from Arabs are politically motivated and lack historical basis, citing Druze religious and historical literature that affirms their Arab heritage.[376] Scholar Michael Cohen adds that, despite the Israeli and Zionist narrative promoting a distinct "Druze ethnic identity", most Druze in Israel view their origins as Arab and consider their Druze identity primarily as religious.[377]
Druze as a mixture of Western Asian tribes
The 1911 edition ofEncyclopædia Britannica states that the Druze are "a mixture of refugee stocks, in which the Arab largely predominates, grafted on to an original mountain population of Aramaic blood".[73]
Iturean hypothesis
According to Jewish contemporary literature, the Druze, who were visited and described in 1165 byBenjamin of Tudela, were pictured as descendants of theItureans,[378] anIsmaeliteArab tribe, which used to reside in the northern parts of theGolan plateau through Hellenistic and Roman periods. The wordDruzes, in an early Hebrew edition of his travels, occurs asDogziyin, but it is clear that this is a scribal error.
Archaeological assessments of the Druze region have also proposed the possibility of Druze descending from Itureans,[379] who had inhabitedMount Lebanon andGolan Heights in late classic antiquity, but their traces fade in the Middle Ages.
In a 2005 study ofASPM gene variants, Mekel-Bobrov et al. found that theIsraeli Druze people of theMount Carmel region have among the highest rate of the newly evolved ASPM- Haplogroup D, at 52.2% occurrence of the approximately 6,000-year-old allele.[381] While it is not yet known exactly what selective advantage is provided by this gene variant, the Haplogroup D allele is thought[by whom?] to be positively selected in populations and to confer some substantial advantage that has caused its frequency to rapidly increase.
A 2004DNA study has shown that Israeli Druze are remarkable for the high frequency (35%) of males who carry theY-chromosomalhaplogroup L, which is otherwise uncommon in the Middle East (Shen et al. 2004).[382] This haplogroup originates fromprehistoricSouth Asia and has spread fromPakistan into southernIran. A 2008 study done on larger samples showed that L-M20 averages 27% in Mount Carmel Druze, 2% in Galilee Druze, 8% in Lebanese Druze, and it was not found in a sample of 59 Syrian Druze (Slush et al. 2008).[383]
Cruciani, in 2007, found E1b1b1a2 (E-V13) [a subclade of E1b1b1a (E-M78)] in high levels (>10% of the male population) in Cypriot and Druze lineages. Recent genetic clustering analyses of ethnic groups are consistent with the close ancestral relationship between the Druze and Cypriots, and also identified similarity to the generalSyrian andLebanese populations, as well as the majorJewishdivisions (Ashkenazi,Sephardi,Iraqi, andMoroccan Jews) (Behar et al. 2010).[384]
Also, a new study concluded that the Druze harbor a remarkable diversity ofmitochondrial DNA lineages that appear to have separated from each other thousands of years ago. But instead of dispersing throughout the world after their separation, the full range of lineages can still be found within the Druze population.[385]
The researchers noted that the Druze villages contained a striking range of high frequency and high diversity of theX haplogroup, suggesting that this population provides a glimpse into the past genetic landscape of theNear East at a time when the X haplogroup was more prevalent.[385]
These findings are consistent with the Druzeoral tradition that claims that the adherents of the faith came from diverse ancestral lineages stretching back tens of thousands of years.[385] TheShroud of Turin analysis shows significant traces of mitochondrial DNA unique to the Druze community.[386]
A 2008 study published on the genetic background of Druze communities in Israel showed highly heterogeneous parental origins. A total of 311 Israeli Druze were sampled: 37 from theGolan Heights, 183 from theGalilee, and 35 fromMount Carmel, as well as 27 Druze immigrants from Syria and 29 from Lebanon (Slush et al. 2008). The researchers found the following frequencies of Y-chromosomal and MtDNA haplogroups:[383]
Mount Carmel: L 27%, R 27%, J 18%, E 15%, G 12%.
Galilee: J 31%, R 20%, E 18%, G 14%, K 11%, Q 4%, L 2%.
Golan Heights: J 54%, E 29%, I 8%, G 4%, C 4%.
Lebanon: J 58%, K 17%, Q 8%, R 8%, L 8%.
Syria: J 39%, E 29%, R 14%, G 14%, K 4%.
Maternal MtDNA haplogroup frequencies: H 32%, X 13%, K 12.5%, U 10%, T 7.5%, HV 4.8%, J 4.8%, I 3.5%, pre HV 3%, L2a3 2.25%, N1b 2.25%, M1 1.6%, W 1.29%.
In a principal component analysis of a 2014 study, Druze were located between Lebanese people and Mizrahi Jews.[387]
According to a 2015 study, Druze have a largely similar genome with Middle Eastern Arabs, but they have not married outside of their clans in 1000 years and Druze families from different regions share a similarity with each other that distinguishes them from other Middle Eastern populations.[388]
A 2016 study based on testing samples of Druze in thehistoric region of Syria, in comparison with ancient humans (including Anatolian and Armenian), and on Geographic Population Structure (GPS) tool by converting genetic distances into geographic distances, concluded that Druze might hail from theZagros Mountains and the surroundings ofLake Van in easternAnatolia, then they later migrated south to settle in the mountainous regions in Syria, Lebanon and Israel.[389]
A 2020 study on remains fromCanaanaite (Bronze Age southernLevantine) populations suggests a significant degree of genetic continuity in currently Arabic-speaking Levantine populations (including the Druze, Lebanese,Palestinians, and Syrians), as well as in most Jewish groups (includingSephardi Jews,Ashkenazi Jews,Mizrahi Jews, andMaghrebi Jews) from the populations of the Bronze Age Levant, suggesting that the aforementioned groups all derive more than half of their overall ancestry (atDNA) from Canaanite / Bronze Age Levantine populations,[390][391] albeit with varying sources and degrees of admixture from differing host or invading populations depending on each group.
Principal component analysis of some ancient and modern populations, including Druze (Almarri, Mohamed A. et al. 2021).
In a 2021 study, Druze were a part of the larger Levant-Iraq cluster in a fineSTRUCTURE tree analysis, and overlapped with Lebanese people in a principal component analysis.[392]
^In 1962, Israel redefined the Druze's ethnic identity from "Arab" to "Druze" on official documents, creating a distinct political and national identity and establishing a separate education system to foster a "Druze and Israeli" consciousness. This initiative aimed to counteract "Arabization" and "Palestinianization", resulted in an independent Druze curriculum. While most Druze in Israel continue to identify as Arabs, some have adopted a distinct "Druze ethnic identity" for political or social reasons. Scholars argue that this policy, supported by a co-opted Druze political elite, privileges the Druze's communal aspects while marginalizing their broader ethnic and national identity.[66][67][68][69]
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Citations
^Skutsch, Carl (2013). Skutsch, Carl (ed.).Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities.Routledge. p. 410.ISBN978-1-135-19388-1.Total Population: 800,000
^Betts 1990, p. 55: "The total population of Druze throughout the world probably approaches one million."
^Marsh, Donna (2015).Doing Business in the Middle East: A cultural and practical guide for all Business Professionals (revised ed.). Hachette UK.ISBN978-1-4721-3567-4.It is believed there are no more than 1 million Druze worldwide; most live in the Levant.
^Swayd 2015, p. 3: "The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million; ..."
^abcHendrix, Scott; Okeja, Uchenna, eds. (2018).The World's Greatest Religious Leaders: How Religious Figures Helped Shape World History [2 volumes].ABC-CLIO. p. 11.ISBN978-1440841385.
^ab"Druze in Syria".Harvard University.The Druze are an ethnoreligious group concentrated in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel with around one million adherents worldwide. The Druze follow a millenarian offshoot of Isma'ili Shi'ism. Followers emphasize Abrahamic monotheism but consider the religion as separate from Islam.
^Swayd 2015, p. 3: "The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million; ..."
^abDe McLaurin, Ronald (1979).The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East.University of Michigan Press. p. 114.ISBN9780030525964.Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above.
^abStewart, Dona J. (2008).The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives.Routledge. p. 33.ISBN9781135980795.Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
^abcdThe New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1992. p. 237.ISBN9780852295533.Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism.
^abAl-Najjar, 'Abdullāh (1965).Madhhab ad-Durūz wa t-Tawḥīd (The Druze Sect and Unism) (in Arabic). Egypt: Dār al-Ma'ārif.
^Hitti, Philip K. (2007) [1924].Origins of the Druze People and Religion, with Extracts from their Sacred Writings. Columbia University Oriental Studies. Vol. 28 (new ed.). London: Saqi. pp. 13–14.ISBN978-0-86356-690-5.
^"Druze set to visit Syria".BBC News. 30 August 2004. Retrieved8 September 2006.The worldwide population of Druze is put at up to one million, with most living in mountainous regions in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Israel.
^Held, Colbert (2008).Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics. Routledge. p. 109.ISBN9780429962004.Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.
^abHalabi, Rabah,Citizens of equal duties—Druze identity and the Jewish State (in Hebrew), p. 55
^abcHendrix, Scott; Okeja, Uchenna, eds. (2018).The World's Greatest Religious Leaders: How Religious Figures Helped Shape World History [2 volumes].ABC-CLIO. p. 11.ISBN978-1-4408-4138-5.
Remove ye the causes of fear and estrangement from yourselves. Do away with the corruption of delusion and conformity. Be ye certain that the Prince of Believers hath given unto you free will, and hath spared you the trouble of disguising and concealing your true beliefs, so that when ye work ye may keep your deeds pure for God. He hath done thus so that when you relinquish your previous beliefs and doctrines ye shall not indeed lean on such causes of impediments and pretensions. By conveying to you the reality of his intention, the Prince of Believers hath spared you any excuse for doing so. He hath urged you to declare your belief openly. Ye are now safe from any hand which may bring harm unto you. Ye now may find rest in his assurance ye shall not be wronged. Let those who are present convey this message unto the absent so that it may be known by both the distinguished and the common people. It shall thus become a rule to mankind; and Divine Wisdom shall prevail for all the days to come.
^Ismaili, Islam Heritage Field, archived fromthe original on 11 September 2019, retrieved5 June 2008
^al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah became a central figure in the Druze faith, although his religious position was disputed among scholars.John Esposito states that al-Hakim believed that "he was not only the divinely appointed religio-political leader, but also thecosmic intellect linking God with creation",Potter, William (2004),Melville's Clarel and the Intersympathy of Creeds,Kent State University Press, p. 156,ISBN978-0-87338-797-2, while others like Nissîm Dānā andMordechai Nisan state that he is perceived as the manifestation and the reincarnation of God or presumably the image of God.
^abcErickson, Rebecca."The Druze"(PDF).Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 18 May 2015.
^abParsons, L. (2000).The Druze between Palestine and Israel 1947–49. Springer. p. 2.ISBN9780230595989.With the succession of al-Zahir to the Fatimid caliphate a mass persecution (known by the Druze as the period of themihna) of the Muwaḥḥidūn was instigated ...
^Khuri Hitti, Philip (1996).The Origins of the Druze People: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings.University of California Press. p. 10.ISBN9781538124185.Lebanon therefore was the distributing center of the Druze people and Wādi-al-Taym was the birthplace of their faith.
^abcNajem, Tom; Amore, Roy C.; Abu Khalil, As'ad (2021).Historical Dictionary of Lebanon. Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East (2nd ed.). Lanham Boulder New York London: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 50.ISBN978-1-5381-2043-9.
Hazran 2013, p. 32: "the Druze had been able to live in harmony with the Christian"
Artzi 1984, p. 166: "...Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers," and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred."
Churchill 1862, p. 25: "...the Druzes and Christians lived together in the most perfect harmony and good-will..."
^abcdHobby (1985).Near East/South Asia Report. Foreign Broadcast Information Service. p. 53.the Druze and the Christians in the Shouf Mountains in the past lived in complete harmony..
^Harik, Iliya F. (2017).Politics and Change in a Traditional Society: Lebanon 1711–1845.Princeton University Press. p. 241.ISBN9781400886869.the Abillama' amirs, were mostly Christians converted from the Druze faith.
^al-H̲azīn, Farīd (2000).The Breakdown of the State in Lebanon, 1967–1976.Harvard University Press. p. 35.ISBN9780674081055.So did other amirs, like the originally Druze Abi-llamah family, which also became Maronite
^Salibi, Kamal (1900).A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. University of California Press. p. 162.ISBN9780520071964.namely the emirs of the house of Abul - Lama, used to be Druzes before they converted to Christianity and became Maronites
^Masters, Bruce Alan (2010).Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Infobase Publishing. p. 352.ISBN9781438110257.
^Özavcı, Hilmi Ozan (2021).Dangerous Gifts: Imperialism, Security, and Civil Wars in the Levant, 1798-1864. Oxford University Press. p. 235.ISBN9780198852964.
^abcDeeb, Marius (2013).Syria, Iran, and Hezbollah: The Unholy Alliance and Its War on Lebanon. Hoover Press.ISBN9780817916664.the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.
^abYu Chen, Ying (2021).Handbook of Asian States: Geography – History – Culture – Politics – Economy. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 344.ISBN9783643911001.
^Balanche, Fabrice (2017).Atlas of the Near East: State Formation and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1918–2010. Brill. p. 27.ISBN9789004345188....comprised 50,328 inhabitants, of whom 85 per cent were Druze, and it integrated Christian communities (7,000 people) who had long lived in these mountains in harmony with the Druze.
^"Syria – Sunnis".www.country-data.com.Archived from the original on 23 October 2018. Retrieved12 May 2020.
^Panagakos, Anastasia (2015).Religious Diversity Today: Experiencing Religion in the Contemporary World [3 volumes]: Experiencing Religion in the Contemporary World.ABC-CLIO. p. 99.ISBN9781440833328.
^Inhorn, Marcia C., and Soraya Tremayne. 2012.Islam and Assisted Reproductive Technologies. p. 238.
^"Israel's Religiously Divided Society". Pew Research Center. 8 March 2016. Retrieved8 December 2017.Virtually all Muslims (99%) and Christians (96%) surveyed in Israel identify as Arab. A somewhat smaller share of Druze (71%) say they are ethnically Arab. Other Druze respondents identify their ethnicity as "Other," "Druze" or "Druze-Arab."
^Abbas, Randa Khair; Court, Deborah (2011).The Israeli Druze Community in Transition: Between Tradition and Modernity. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 11.ISBN9781527567399.In 1957, the Druze were declared a religious community in Israel.
^Cohen, Hillel (2015).Good Arabs: The Israeli Security Agencies and the Israeli Arabs, 1948–1967.University of California Press. p. 167.ISBN9780520944886.In 1957, the Druze were recognized as a distinct religious confession.
^Faulkner, Neil (2016).Lawrence of Arabia's War: The Arabs, the British and the Remaking of the Middle East in WWI. New Haven:Yale University Press. pp. 273,367–368, 426.ISBN9780300226393.
^"Chavez tells Israelis to disobey 'genocidal' govt". 26 September News. September 2009. Archived fromthe original on 6 October 2018. Retrieved15 January 2017.More than 200,000 people from the Sweida area carry Venezuelan citizenship and most are members of Syria's Druse sect, who immigrated to Venezuela in the past century.
^Rowe, Paul S. (2018).Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East.Routledge. p. 352.ISBN9781317233794.
^Isḥāq Khūrī, Fuʼād (2009).Being a Druze.University of Michigan Press. p. 7.ISBN9781904850014.The early migrants tended to mix well with the local population in Venezuela. The Eastern Christians, regardless of the long-standing disagreements (to put it lightly) between the Catholic and Eastern Christian faiths, converted quickly, and even the Druze and Muslims converted to Catholicism
^abKayyali 2006, p. 21: "Many of the Druze have chosen to deemphasize their ethnic identity, and some have officially converted to Christianity."
^abHobby, Jeneen (2011).Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life.University of Philadelphia Press. p. 232.ISBN9781414448916.US Druze settled in small towns and kept a low profile, joining Protestant churches (usually Presbyterian or Methodist) and often Americanizing their names...
^Hanna Batatu (2012).Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics. Princeton University Press. pp. 15–16.ISBN978-1-4008-4584-2.I ... son of ... being sane of spirit and body and duly qualified, attest on my soul, without compulsion or constraint, that I renounce all the different cults, religions, and creeds and acknowledge nothing other than obedience to our Lord al-Hakim, revered be his name, and obedience is worship; that in his worship I associate no past, present, or future being; that I commit my soul, my body, my property, and my offspring ... to our Lord al-Hakim ... and accept all his decrees, be they in my favour or against me ... He who attests that there is in heaven no adored god and on the earth no living imam other than our Lord al-Hakim ... belongs to the triumphant muwahhidin [unitarians]. Signed ... in the year ... of the slave of our Lord ... Hamzah bin 'Ali bin Ahmad, the guide of those who respond [to the divine call] and the avenger on the polytheists with the sword of our Lord.
^abcdefgHitti, Philip K. (1928).The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings. Library of Alexandria. p. 37.ISBN9781465546623.
^Schmermund, Elizabeth (2017).Lebanon: Cultures of the World (3rd ed.). Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC. p. 87.ISBN9781502626127.While the Druze do not permit iconography in their religion, they have a religious symbol known as the Druze Star
^Stewart, Dona J. (2008).The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives. Routledge.ISBN9781135980788.The Druze symbol is a five colored star, with each color representing cosmic principles believed by the Druze
^Kellner-Heikele, Barbara (2018).Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East: Collected Papers of the International Symposium "Alevism in Turkey and Comparable Syncretistic Religious Communities in the Near East in the Past and Present", Berlin, 14–17 April 1995. Brill. p. 230.ISBN9789004378988.
^Council of Europe (2010).Mosaic: The Training Kit for Euro-mediterranean Youth Work. p. 214.
^Vloeberghs, Ward (2015).Architecture, Power and Religion in Lebanon: Rafiq Hariri and the Politics of Sacred Space in Beirut.Brill. p. 285.ISBN9789004307056.
^R. Williams, Victoria (2020).Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 318.ISBN9781440861185.
^abUbayd, Anis (2006).The Druze and Their Faith in Tawhid.Syracuse University Press. p. 150.ISBN9780815630975.Male circumcision is standard practice, by tradition, among the Druze
^abcJacobs, Daniel (1998).Israel and the Palestinian Territories: The Rough Guide. Rough Guides. p. 147.ISBN9781858282480.Circumcision is not compulsory and has no religious significance.
^Betts, Robert Brenton (2013).The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences. Potomac Books, Inc. p. 56.ISBN9781612345239.There are many references to the Druze refusal to observe this common Muslim practice, one of the earliest being the rediscoverer of the ruins of Petra, John Burckhardt. "The Druses do not circumcise their children
^Dr. Dekel, N., Prof. Brosh, H.Languages in Contact: Preliminary Clues on an Emergence of an Israeli Arabic Variety. June 2013.
^Gaash, Amir (2016). "Colloquial Arabic written in Hebrew characters on Israeli websites by Druzes (and other non-Jews)".Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam (43–44): 15.
^abcBeaurepaire, Pierre-Yves (2017).Religious Interactions in Europe and the Mediterranean World: Coexistence and Dialogue from the 12th to the 20th Centuries.Taylor & Francis. pp. 310–314.ISBN9781351722179.
^Munro, Dane; Haddad, Nour Fara (2019).Peace Journeys: A New Direction in Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Research. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 7.ISBN9781527543133.
^Bowman, Glenn (2012).Sharing the Sacra: The Politics and Pragmatics of Intercommunal Relations Around Holy Places.Berghahn Books. p. 17.ISBN9780857454867.
^abSwayd 2015, p. 132: "Some Muslim rulers and jurists have advocated the persecution of members of the Druze Movement beginning with the seventh Fatimi Caliph Al-Zahir, in 1022. Recurring period of persecutions in subsequent centuries ... failure to elucidate their beliefs and practices, have contributed to the ambiguous relationship between Muslims and Druzes"
^abZartman, Jonathan K. (2020).Conflict in the Modern Middle East: An Encyclopedia of Civil War, Revolutions, and Regime Change.ABC-CLIO. p. 199.ISBN9781440865039.Historically, Islam classified Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians as protected "People of the Book," a secondary status subject to payment of a poll tax. Nevertheless, Zoroastrians suffered significant persecution. Other religions such as the Alawites, Alevis, and Druze often suffered more.
^abLayiš, Aharôn (1982).Marriage, Divorce, and Succession in the Druze Family: A Study Based on Decisions of Druze Arbitrators and Religious Courts in Israel and the Golan Heights.Brill. p. 1.ISBN9789004064126.the Druze religion, though originating from the Isma'lliyya, an extreme branch of the Shia, seceded completely from Islam and has, therefore, experienced periods of persecution by the latter.
^abKeddie, Nikki R.; Matthee, Rudolph P. (2002).Iran and the Surrounding World: Interactions in Culture and Cultural Politics (illustrated ed.).University of Washington Press. p. 306.ISBN9780295982069.
^Aryain, Ed (2006).From Syria to Seminole: Memoir of a High Plains Merchant. Texas Tech University Press. p. 213.ISBN9780896725867.
^Williams, Victoria R. (2020).Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes].ABC-CLIO. p. 318.ISBN9781440861185.
^Zaman, Muhammad Qasim; Stewart, Devin J.; Mirza, Mahan; Kadi, Wadad; Crone, Patricia; Gerhard, Bowering; Hefner, Robert W.; Fahmy, Khaled; Kuran, Timur (2013).The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought.Princeton University Press. pp. 139–140.ISBN9780691134840.Druze who survive as a small minority in Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan (their estimated number in these countries totaled around one million in the beginning of the 21st century) diverge substantially from Islam, both Sunni and Shīʿa.
^Bryer, David R. W. (1979).The Origins of the Druze Religion: An Edition of Ḥamza's Writings and an Analysis of His Doctrine.University of Oxford Press. p. 239.ISBN9780030525964.
^Yazbeck Haddad, Yvonne (2014).The Oxford Handbook of American Islam.Oxford University Press. p. 142.ISBN9780199862634.While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is considered distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice... Most Druze consider themselves fully assimilated in American society and do not necessarily identify as Muslims..
^Cohen, Hillel (2010).Good Arabs: The Israeli Security Agencies and the Israeli Arabs, 1948–1967.University of California Press. p. 170.ISBN9780520944886.the Druze connection to the Muslims remained a matter of controversy.
^Jacobs, Martin (2014).Reorienting the East: Jewish Travelers to the Medieval Muslim World.University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 193.ISBN9780812290011.Though their religion is related to that of the Ismailis from a historical standpoint, the Druze—who see themselves as true "unitarians" (muwah.h.idūn)—are usually not considered Muslims.
^Hajjar, Lisa (2005).Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza.University of California Press. p. 279.ISBN9780520241947.[Druze] although today it is widely considered to be a separate religion, some still consider it an Islamic sect
^Artzi 1984, p. 166: "...Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers," and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred."
^Firro, Kais M. (2021).The Druzes in the Jewish State: A Brief History. Brill. p. 94.ISBN9789004491915.
^Hunter, Shireen (2010).The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies.University of Michigan Press. p. 33.ISBN9780253345493.Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.
^Grafton, David D. (2009).Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East.Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 14.ISBN9781630877187.In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.
^Williams, Victoria R. (2020).Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes].ABC-CLIO. p. 318.ISBN9781440861185.As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.
^"'Allah has spoken to us: we must keep silent.' In the folds of secrecy, the Holy Book of the Druze".Aix-Marseille University. 30 January 2017.Orientalist literature frequently affiliates the Druze religion with the Muslim faith, although it seems as different from Islam as Islam is from Christianity or Christianity is from Judaism (Bryer 1975b, 239). The Muslim consider Druze doctrine to be heresy specifically because it extols the transmigration of the soul (taqammoṣ əl-arwaḥ) and the repeal of religion.
^Nestorović, Čedomir (2016).Islamic Marketing: Understanding the Socio-Economic, Cultural, and Politico-Legal Environment. Springer. p. 66.ISBN9783319327549.As far as the Druze are concerned, many Muslims regard them suspiciously, arguing that they are not in fact Muslims, but rather a religion in their own.
^Roald, Anne Sofie (2011).Religious Minorities in the Middle East: Domination, Self-Empowerment, Accommodation. Brill. p. 255.ISBN9789004207424.Therefore, many of these scholars follow Ibn Taymiyya'sfatwa from the beginning of the fourteenth century that declared the Druzes and the Alawis as heretics outside Islam ...
^Knight, Michael (2009).Journey to the End of Islam. Soft Skull Press. p. 129.ISBN9781593765521.
^Swayd 2009, p. 37: "Subsequently, Muslim opponents of the Druzes have often relied on Ibn Taymiyya's religious ruling to justify their attitudes and actions against Druzes..."
^Ahmad, A. (2009).Islam, Modernity, Violence, and Everyday Life. Springer. p. 164.ISBN9780230619562.
^Aburish, Saïd K. (2004).Nasser: the last Arab (illustrated ed.). Duckworth. pp. 200–201.ISBN9780715633007.But perhaps the most far reaching change [initiated by Nasser's guidance] was the fatwa commanding the readmission to mainstream Islam of the Shia, Alawis, and Druze. They had been considered heretics and idolaters for hundreds of years, but Nasser put an end to this for once and for all. While endearing himself to the majority Shia of Iraq and undermining Kassem [the communist ruler of Iraq at the time] might have played a part in that decision, there is no doubting the liberalism of the man in this regard.
^Jonas, Margaret (2011).The Templar Spirit: The Esoteric Inspiration, Rituals and Beliefs of the Knights Templar. Temple Lodge Publishing. p. 83.ISBN9781906999254.[Druze] often they are not regarded as being Muslim at all, nor do all the Druze consider themselves as Muslim
^Asian and African Studies: Vol. 19, No. 3. p. 271
^Asian and African Studies: Vol. 19, No. 3. p. 277
^Frazee, Charles A. (2006).Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453–1923.Cambridge University Press. p. 191.ISBN9780521027007.the conversion to Christianity of several Muslim and Druze families aided this growth immeasurably
^Kayyali 2006, p. 21: "some Christians (mostly from the Orthodox faith), as well as Druze, converted to Protestantism..."
^al- H̲azīn, Farīd (2000).The Breakdown of the State in Lebanon, 1967–1976.Harvard University Press. p. 35.ISBN9780674081055.So did other amirs, like the originally Druze Abi-llamah family, which also became Maronite
^Fadwa N. Kirrish, "Druze Ethnicity in the Golan Heights: The Interface of Religion and Politics,"Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs 13.1 (1992), 122–135
^Ellwood, Robert S. (2008).The Encyclopedia of World Religions. Infobase Publishing. p. 95.ISBN9781438110387.It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America.
^Gruenbaum, Ellen (2015).The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 61.ISBN9780812292510.Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians
^Stearns, Peter N. (2008).The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World.Oxford University Press. p. 179.ISBN9780195176322.Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.
^Seddon, David, ed. (2013).A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East.Routledge.ISBN9781135355616....Druze believe in seven prophets: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, and Muhammad ibn Ismail ad-Darazi..
^Swayd 2009, p. 88: "Jesus is known in the Druze tradition as the "True Messiah" (al-Masih al-Haq), for he delivered what Druzes view as the true message. He is also referred to as the "Messiah of the Nations"(Masih al-Umam) because he was sent to the world as "Masih of Sins" because he is the one who forgives."
^Parsons, L. (2011).The Druze between Palestine and Israel 1947–49. Springer. p. 7.ISBN9780230595989.
^Nettler, Ronald (2014).Muslim-Jewish Encounters.Routledge. p. 140.ISBN9781134408542....One example of Druze anti-Jewish bias is contained in an epistle ascribed to one of the founders of Druzism, Baha al-Din
^Salibi, K. (1988).A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. University of California Press. p. 66.ISBN978-0-520-07196-4.
^Joel Rappel.History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), Vol. 2, p. 531. "In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived in Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few former Safed residents had returned..."
^Barnay, Y. The Jews in Palestine in the eighteenth century: under the patronage of the Istanbul Committee of Officials for Palestine (University of Alabama Press 1992)ISBN978-0-8173-0572-7 p. 149
^Louis Finkelstein (1960).The Jews: their history, culture, and religion. Harper. p. 679.In the summer of 1838 the Druses revolted against Ibrahim Pasha, and once more the Jews were the scapegoat. The Moslems joined the Druses in repeating the slaughter and plunder of 1834.
^Nisan 2015, p. 284: "This Jewish-Druze partnership was often referred to as a "covenant of blood," in recognition of the common military yoke carried by the two peoples for the security of the country."
^Ibrahim, Ibtisam (2000).Israel's "ethnic Project" in the City of Shafa-amr: Particularization of Identity Along Religious Lines. University of Wisconsin-Madison. pp. 170–175.ISBN9789651905889.
^Kheir, Eve A. (2023).Codeswitching as an Index and Construct of Sociopolitical Identity: The Case of the Druze and Arabs in Israel.Brill. p. 55.ISBN9789004534803.
^M. Firro, Kais (2021).The Druzes in the Jewish State: A Brief History. Brill. pp. 158–159.ISBN9789004491915.
^J. Cohen, Michael (2020).The British Mandate in Palestine: A Centenary Volume, 1920–2020. Taylor & Francis.ISBN9780429640483.
^Dar, Shimon (1988). "The History of the Hermon Settlements".Palestine Exploration Quarterly.120 (1):26–44.doi:10.1179/peq.1988.120.1.26.ISSN0031-0328.Heretofore studies of the Ituraeans have been based on historical sources and written history. Archaeological surveys from 1968 to ... Proposes the possibility that the Druze descended from the Ituraeans.
^Haber et al. 2013. Quote: 1 – "We show that religious affiliation had a strong impact on the genomes of the Levantines. In particular, conversion of the region's populations to Islam appears to have introduced major rearrangements in populations' relations through admixture with culturally similar but geographically remote populations, leading to genetic similarities between remarkably distant populations like Jordanians, Moroccans, and Yemenis. Conversely, other populations, like Christians and Druze, became genetically isolated in the new cultural environment. We reconstructed the genetic structure of the Levantines and found that a pre-Islamic expansion Levant was more genetically similar to Europeans than to Middle Easterners." 2 – "The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen." 3 – Lebanese Christians and all Druze cluster together, and Lebanese Muslims are extended towards Syrians, Palestinians, and Jordanians, which are close to Saudis and Bedouins."
^Doron M. Behar; Bayazit Yunusbayev; Mait Metspalu; Ene Metspalu; Saharon Rosset; Jüri Parik; Siiri Rootsi; Gyaneshwer Chaubey; Ildus Kutuev; Guennady Yudkovsky; Elza K. Khusnutdinova; Oleg Balanovsky; Olga Balaganskaya; Ornella Semino; Luisa Pereira; David Comas; David Gurwitz; Batsheva Bonne-Tamir; Tudor Parfitt; Michael F. Hammer; Karl Skorecki; Richard Villems (July 2010)."The genome-wide structure of the Jewish people".Nature.466 (7303):238–242.Bibcode:2010Natur.466..238B.doi:10.1038/nature09103.PMID20531471.S2CID4307824.
^Agranat-Tamir L, Waldman S, Martin MS, Gokhman D, Mishol N, Eshel T, Cheronet O, Rohland N, Mallick S, Adamski N, Lawson AM, Mah M, Michel MM, Oppenheimer J, Stewardson K, Candilio F, Keating D, Gamarra B, Tzur S, Novak M, Kalisher R, Bechar S, Eshed V, Kennett DJ, Faerman M, Yahalom-Mack N, Monge JM, Govrin Y, Erel Y, Yakir B, Pinhasi R, Carmi S, Finkelstein I, Reich D (May 2020)."The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant".Cell.181 (5): 1146–1157.e11.doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.024.PMC10212583.PMID32470400.
Amara, Muhammad; Schnell, Izhak (2004). "Identity Repertoires among Arabs in Israel".Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies.30:175–193.doi:10.1080/1369183032000170222.S2CID144424824.
Artzi, Pinḥas (1984).Confrontation and Coexistence. Bar-Ilan University Press.ISBN9789652260499.
Tucker, Spencer C. (2019).Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes].ABC-CLIO.ISBN9781440853531.
Zabad, Ibrahim (2017).Middle Eastern Minorities: The Impact of the Arab Spring.Routledge.ISBN9781317096733.
Further reading
Jean-Marc Aractingi, La Face Cachée des Druzes "Les Francs-Maçons de l'Orient", 251 pages, Editeur : Independently published (2020),ISBN978-1689584821
Jean-Marc Aractingi, "Les Druzes et la Franc-maçonnerie", inLes Cahiers de l'Orient, no. 69, 1er trimestre 2003, Paris: L'Équerre et le Croissant, éditions Les Cahiers de l'Orient
Jean-Marc Aractingi, "Points de convergence dans les rituels et symboles chez les Druzes et chez les francs-maçons", inLes Cahiers, Jean Scot Erigène, no 8, Franc-maçonnerie et Islamité, Paris: la Grande Loge de France.
Aractingi, Jean-Marc; Lochon, Christian (2008).Secrets initiatiques en Islam et rituels maçonniques-Ismaéliens, Druzes, Alaouites, Confréries soufies. Paris: L'Harmattan.ISBN978-2-296-06536-9..
Rabih AlameddineI, the Divine: A Novel in First Chapters, Norton (2002).ISBN0-393-32356-0.
B. Destani, ed.Minorities in the Middle East: Druze Communities 1840–1974, 4 volumes, Slough: Archive Editions (2006).ISBN1-84097-165-7.
R. Scott Kennedy "The Druze of the Golan: A Case of Non-Violent Resistance"Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 13, No. 2 (Winter, 1984), pp. 48–46.
Shamai, Shmuel (1990). "Critical Sociology of Education Theory in Practice: The Druze Education in the Golan".British Journal of Sociology of Education.11 (4):449–463.doi:10.1080/0142569900110406.
Bashar Tarabieh "Education, Control and Resistance in the Golan Heights".Middle East Report, No. 194/195, Odds against Peace (May–August 1995), pp. 43–47.
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