Triticum algerienseDesf. ex Mert. & W.D.J.Koch nom. inval.
Triticum bauhiniiLag.
Triticum brachystachyumLag. ex Schult. & Schult.f. nom. inval.
Triticum candissimumBayle-Bar.
Triticum caucasicumFlaksb. nom. inval.
Triticum cevallosLag.
Triticum cochleareLag.
Triticum densiusculumFlaksb. nom. inval.
Triticum fastuosumLag.
Triticum hordeiformeHost
Triticum laxiusculumFlaksb. nom. inval.
Triticum longisemineumFlaksb. nom. inval.
Triticum maurorumSennen nom. inval.
Triticum molleRoem. & Schult. nom. inval.
Triticum orientaleFlaksb. nom. inval.
Triticum platystachyumLag.
Triticum pruinosumHornem.
Triticum pyramidalePercival
Triticum rarumFlaksb. nom. inval.
Triticum rimpauiMackey
Triticum siculumRoem. & Schult.
Triticum tanaiticumFlaksb. nom. inval.
Triticum tiflisienseFlaksb. nom. inval.
Triticum tomentosumBayle-Bar.
Triticum transcaucasicumFlaksb. nom. inval.
Triticum trevisiumDesv. nom. inval.
Triticum venulosumSer.
Triticum villosumHost
Durum[2] (/ˈdjʊərəm/), also calledpasta wheat[3] ormacaroni wheat (Triticum durum orTriticum turgidum subsp.durum),[4] is atetraploid species ofwheat.[5] It is the second-most cultivated species of wheat aftercommon wheat, although it represents only 5 to 8% of global wheat production.[6] It was developed byartificial selection of the domesticatedemmer wheat strains formerly grown in Central Europe and theNear East around 7000 BC, which developed a naked,free-threshing form.[7] Like emmer, durum isawned (with bristles). It is the predominant wheat grown in the Middle East.
Durum inLatin means "hard". The species is the hardest of all wheats regarding its resistance of the grain to milling, in particular of thestarchyendosperm, causingdough made from itsflour to be weak or "soft".[citation needed]
Durum—and indeed alltetraploids—lackFhb1alleles. The only exception is found by Buerstmayret al., 2012 on the3B chromosome.[15][16][17]
One of the predominant production areas of durum—Italy—has domesticated varieties with lowergenetic diversity than wild types, but subspeciesT. d. turanicum,T. d. polonicum, andT. d. carthlicum have a level of diversity intermediate between those groups.[18] There is evidence of an increase in the intensity of breeding after 1990.[18][19][20]
Commercially produced drypasta, orpasta secca, is made almost exclusively from durumsemolina.[21] Most home-madefresh pastas also use durum or a combination of soft and hard wheats.[citation needed] Its hardness makes it favorable for semolina and pasta and less practical for flour, which requires more work to mill than withhexaploid wheats such ascommon bread wheats.[citation needed]
The use of wheat to produce pasta was described as early as the 10th century byIbn Wahshīya ofCairo. The North Africans called the productitrīya, from which Italian sources derived the termtria (oraletría in the case of Spanish sources) during the 15th century.[22]
Durum wheat (T. d. durum) is the 10th-most cultivated cereal worldwide, with a total production around 38 million tons.[24]
Most of the durum grown today isamber durum, the grains of which are amber-colored due to the extra carotenoid pigments and are larger than those of other types of wheat. Durum has a yellowendosperm, which gives pasta its color. When durum ismilled, the endosperm is ground into a granular product calledsemolina. Semolina made from durum is used for premium pastas and breads. Notably, semolina is also one of the only flours that is purposely oxidized for flavor and color. Also, a red durum is grown for use mostly inlivestock feed.[citation needed]
The cultivation of durum generates greater yield than other wheats in areas of low precipitation. Good yields can be obtained byirrigation, but this is rarely done.[25] Durum is one of the most important food crops inWest Asia. Although the variety of the wheat there is diverse, it is not extensively grown there, thus it must be imported.[26] West amber durum produced inCanada is used mostly as semolina/pasta, but some is also exported toItaly for bread production.[27]
In the Middle East and North Africa, local bread-making accounts for half the consumption of durum. Some flour is even imported. Many countries in Europe, though, produce durum in commercially significant quantities.[28]
In India, durum accounts for roughly 5% of total wheat production in the country and is used to make products such asrava andsooji.[29]
Durum is subject to four processes - cleaning, tempering, milling, and purifying. First, durum is cleaned to remove foreign material and shrunken and broken kernels. Then, it is tempered to a desired moisture content, toughening the seed coat for efficient separation of bran and endosperm. Durum milling is a complex procedure involving repetitivegrinding andsieving. Proper purifying results in maximum semolina yield and the least amount ofbran powder.[30]
To produce bread, durum is ground into flour, which is mixed with water to produce dough. The quantities mixed vary, depending on the acidity of the mixture. To produce fluffy bread, the dough is mixed withyeast and lukewarm water, heavily kneaded to form a gas-retaininggluten network, and thenfermented for hours, producing CO2 bubbles held in the gluten.[citation needed]
The quality of the bread produced depends on theviscoelastic properties of gluten, theprotein content, and protein composition.[31][28] Containing about 12% total protein indefatted flour compared to 11% in common wheat, durum yields 27% extractable, wet gluten compared to 24% in common wheat.[31] Despite its high protein content, durum is not a strong wheat in the sense of giving strength to dough through the formation of a gluten network.
Fu, Bin Xiao; Wang, Kun; Dupuis, Brigitte; Taylor, Dale; Nam, Shin (2018). "Kernel vitreousness and protein content: Relationship, interaction and synergistic effects on durum quality".Journal of Cereal Science.79:210–217.doi:10.1016/j.jcs.2017.09.003.
Brown, AHD; Marshall, DR; Frankel, OH; Williams, JT; International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, eds. (1989),The Use of Plant Genetic Resources, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,ISBN0-521-34584-7
Bushuk, W; Rasper, Vladimir F (Aug 1994),Wheat: Production, Properties and Quality, Springer Science and Business Media LLC,ISBN978-0-7514-0181-3
Donnelly, Brendan J; Ponte, Joseph G Jr (2000), "Pasta: raw materials & processing", in Kulp, Karel; Ponte, Joseph G Jr (eds.),Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology, Food Science & Technology, vol. 99 (2nd, rev & exp ed.), New York: Marcel Dekker,ISBN978-0-8247-8294-8
Watson, Andrew (October 2008) [1983],Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700–1100, Studies in Islamic Civilization, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,ISBN978-0-521-06883-3
Wishart, David J (2004),Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, University of Nebraska Press
