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Dungan language

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sinitic language spoken in Central Asia
"Hui language" redirects here; not to be confused withHuizhou Chinese orTongan language.
Dungan
Хуэйзў йүян回族語言خُوِزُو یُوِیًا
Pronunciation[xwɛ̌jt͡sûʝŷʝɛ̃̌]
Native toCentral Asia
RegionChu Valley (Kyrgyzstan,Kazakhstan),Altai Krai,Saratov Oblast (Rovensky District) (Russia),Fergana Valley (Uzbekistan)
EthnicityDungan
Native speakers
145,000 (2009–2021)[1]
Cyrillic (official)
Chinese characters (obsolete)
Xiao'erjing (obsolete)
Latin (historical)
Language codes
ISO 639-3dng
Glottologdung1253
ELPDungan
This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.
Dungan language
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese東干語
Simplified Chinese东干语
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinDōnggānyǔ
Wade–GilesTung1kan1 yü3
IPA[tʊ́ŋ.kán ỳ]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjingدْوقًا يُوِ
Dunganese name
DunganХуэйзў йүян
Xiao'erjingخُوِزُو یُوِیًا
Hanzi回族語言 (Huízú yǔyán;Hui2-tsu2 yü3-yen2)
Russian name
RussianДунганский язык
RomanizationDunganskij jazyk
Kyrgyz name
KyrgyzДунган тили
دۇنعان تىلى
Dungan tili
Kazakh name
KazakhДүнген тілі
دۇنگەن تىلى
Düngen tılı

Dungan (/ˈdʊŋɡɑːn/ or/ˈdʌŋɡən/) is aSinitic language[2] spoken primarily in theChu Valley of southeasternKazakhstan and northernKyrgyzstan. It is the native language of theDungan people, aHui subgroup that fledQing China in the 19th century. It evolved from theCentral Plains Mandarin variety spoken inGansu andShaanxi. It is the onlySino-Tibetan language to be officially written in theCyrillic script. In addition, the Dungan language contains loanwords and archaisms not found in other modern varieties of Mandarin.

History

[edit]

The Dungan people ofKazakhstan andKyrgyzstan (with smaller groups living in other post-Soviet states) are the descendants of several groups of theHui people that migrated to the region in the 1870s and the 1880s after the defeat of theDungan revolt in Northwestern China. The Hui of Northwestern China (often referred to as "Dungans" or "Tungani" by 19th-century western writers, as well as by someTurkic peoples) would normally speak the same Mandarin dialect as the Han people in the same area[3] (or in the area from which the particular Hui community had been resettled). At the same time, due to their unique history, their speech would be rich inIslamic or Islam-influenced terminology, based on loanwords from Arabic, Persian and Turkic languages, as well as translations of them into Chinese.[3] The Hui traders in the bazaars would be able to use Arabic or Persian numbers when talking between themselves, to keep their communications secret from Han bystanders.[4] While not constituting a separate language, these words, phrases and turns of speech, known asHuihui hua (回回話, "Hui speech"), served as markers of group identity.[3] As early 20th century travellers in Northwestern China would note, "theMohammedan Chinese have to some extent a vocabulary and always a style and manner of speech, all their own".[5]

As the Dungans in the Russian Empire — and even more so in the Soviet Union — were isolated from China, their language experienced significant influence from theRussian and the Turkic languages of their neighbors.

In the Soviet Union, a written standard of the Dungan language was developed, based on a dialect of theGansu Province, rather than the Beijing base ofStandard Chinese. The language was used in the schools in Dungan villages. In theSoviet time there were several school textbooks published for studying the Dungan language, a three volume Russian–Dungan dictionary (14,000 words), the Dungan–Russian dictionary,linguistics monographs on the language and books in Dungan. The first Dungan-language newspaper was established in 1932; it continues publication today in weekly form.

WhenDru C. Gladney, who had spent some years working with the Hui people in China, met with Dungans inAlmaty in 1988, he described the experience as speaking "in a hybrid Gansu dialect that combined Turkish and Russian lexical items".[6]

Mutual intelligibility with Mandarin dialects

[edit]

There is a varying degree ofmutual intelligibility between Dungan and various Mandarin dialects. TheCentral Plains Mandarin varieties andJin Chinese are both understood by Dungans. On the other hand, Dungan speakers likeIasyr Shivaza and others have reported that people who speak theBeijing Mandarin dialect can understand Dungan, but Dungans could not understand Beijing Mandarin.[7]

Geographical distribution

[edit]

Dungan is spoken primarily inKyrgyzstan, with speakers inRussia,Kazakhstan andUzbekistan as well. The Dungan ethnic group are the descendants of refugees from China who migrated west into Central Asia.

According to the Soviet census statistics from 1970 to 1989, the Dungan maintained the use of their ethnic language much more successfully than other minority ethnic groups in Central Asia; however, in the post-Soviet period, the proportion of Dungans speaking the Dungan language as their native language appears to have fallen sharply.

Dungan speakers by population
YearDunganL1RussianL2Total Dungan populationSource
197036,445 (94.3%)18,566 (48.0%)38,644Soviet census
197949,020 (94.8%)32,429 (62.7%)51,694Soviet census
198965,698 (94.8%)49,075 (70.8%)69,323Soviet census
200141,400 (41.4%)N/A100,000Ethnologue

Phonology

[edit]

In basic structure and vocabulary, the Dungan language is not very different fromMandarin Chinese, specifically a variety ofZhongyuan Mandarin (not Lan-Yin Mandarin) spoken in the southern part of the province of Gansu and the western part of the valley ofGuanzhong in the province ofShaanxi. Like otherChinese varieties, Dungan istonal. There are two main dialects, one with 4 tones and the other, considered standard, with 3 tones in the final position in phonetic words and 4 tones in the nonfinal position.

Consonants

[edit]
Consonant phonemes of Dungan
LabialAlveolarRetroflex(Alveolo-)
palatal		Velar
Nasalmnŋ
Stopvoicelessptk
aspiratedpʰtʰkʰ
Affricatevoiceless(p̪͡f)[8]t͡sʈ͡ʂt͡ɕ
aspirated(p̪͡fʰ)[8]t͡sʰʈ͡ʂʰt͡ɕʰ
Fricativevoicelessfsʂɕx
voicedvʐʝ
Approximantlɻ
Consonant table with orthography
UnaspiratedAspiratedNasalFricativeVoiced
CyrillicLatinPinyinIPACyrillicLatinPinyinIPACyrillicLatinPinyinIPACyrillicLatinPinyinIPACyrillicLatinPinyinIPA
бbb[p]пpp[pʰ]мmm[m]фff[f]вvw[v],[w]
дdd[t]тtt[tʰ]нnn[n]лll[l]
зzz[t͡s]цcc[t͡sʰ]сss[s]рrr[ɻ]
җjzh[t͡ʂ]чchch[t͡ʂʰ]шshsh[ʂ]ж[ʐ]
j[t͡ɕ]q[t͡ɕʰ]щx[ɕ]йyy[ʝ]
гgg[k]кkk[kʰ]ңngng[ŋ]хhh[x]
  • /ŋ/ can also be heard as a voiced fricative[ɣ] among other Gansu dialects.
  • /v/ can be heard as[w] in the Şanşi dialects.
  • The labialized retroflex fricatives and affricates [ʂʷ][tʂʷ][tʂʰʷ] can be respectively pronounced as the labiodental [f][p̪͡f][p̪͡fʰ]. This phenomenon can be observed through the wordфə, with the initial being [f], as opposed to [ʂʷ] in Old Mandarin. Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff: "There is a tendency in some speakers for the retroflexed alveo-palatals to be pronounced as rounded labio-dental affricates. Hashimoto has traced this phenomenon in other North-west dialects."[8] Hashimoto: "A theoretically more interesting point here is that Chinese palatals /č, č’, etc./ go to Zhunyanese labials [pf, pf’, etc.]"[9](Hashimoto calls Dungan "Zhunyanese" alongside with other names)

Vowels

[edit]
MedialNucleus
∅aɤɛɔʊəj∅̃æ̃ɔ̃ʊ̃ɚ
∅ɨaɤɛɔʊəjə̃æ̃ɔ̃ʊ̃ɚ
jijajejɔjɤwĩjɛ̃jɔ̃
wuwawɤwɛwɔuwəj, wɛjwæ̃wɔ̃ũ
ɥyɥaɥeỹyɛ̃
Vowel table
CyrillicLatinPinyinIPACyrillicLatinPinyinIPACyrillicLatinPinyinIPACyrillicLatinPinyinIPA
ыîi[ɨ]иii[i],[ɪi]ўûu[u],[ɤu]үüü, u[y]
аaa[a]яia (ya)ia (ya)[ja]уаuaua[wa]үaüaüa[ɥa]
әêe[ɤ]еie (ye)ie (ye)[je]уәuêue[wɤ]үәüeüe[ɥe]
эeê, ai[ɛ]уэueuai[wɛ]
оoao[ɔ]ёio (yo)iao (yao)[jɔ]уэйueiui[wɛj]
ыйîiei[əj]уйuiwei[wəj]
уuou[ʊ]юiu (yu)iu (you)[jɤw]уоuouo[wɔ]
анanan[æ̃]янian (yan)ian (yan)[jɛ̃]уанuanuan[wæ̃]үанüan(j/q/x/y)üan[yɛ̃]
онonang[ɔ̃]ёнion (yon)iang (yang)[jɔ̃]уонuonuang[wɔ̃]
ынîneng, en[ə̃~ɤ̃]инining, in[ĩ],[ɪĩ]унunong[ʊ̃],[ʊə̃]үнüniong, ün[ỹ]
эрerer[ɚ~əɻ]ўнûnung[ũ]
  • /ə˞/ can be heard as[ɯ˞] in Kyrgyzstan.

Vowel constructs that can be used as independent syllable without consonants are shown in parentheses. There arerhotacised vowels, as well as some syllables only seen in loan words from Russian, Arabic, Kyrgyz, etc., in addition to the above table.

Tones

[edit]

Tones in Dungan are marked with nothing (tone 1), aъ (tone 2) andь (tone 3).[10]

Tonal comparison between Dungan and Mandarin
Standard Chinese tone numberDungantone numberTone nameDungan exampleChinese characterGansu-DunganShaanxi-DunganStandard ChineseReferences
OrthographyIPAOrthographyIPAPitch patternTone contourPitch patternTone contourPitch patternTone contour
11陰平
(yīnpíng)		хуа/xwǎ/花/xwá/Rising˨˦ (24)Falling˥˩ (51)High˥ (55)Standard Gansu-Dungan does not distinguish tone 1 and tone 2 only in the final position of phonetic words.
2陽平
(yángpíng)		хуа/xwǎ/華/xwǎ/Rising˨˦ (24)Rising˧˥ (35)
32上聲
(shǎngshēng)		вə(ъ)/vɤ̂/我/wò/Falling˥˩ (51)Falling˥˧ (53)Low/dipping˩,˨˩˦ (1, 214)
43去聲
(qùshēng)		чў(ь)/t͡ɕú/去/t͡ɕŷ/High˦ (44)High˦ (44)Falling˥˨ (52)Some syllables originating in tone 4 fall into tone 1 in modern Mandarin.
00輕聲

(qīngshēng)

зы/t͡sɨ/子/t͡sɹ̩/ShortVariesShortVariesShortVariesActual pitch depends on the preceding syllable.

Writing system

[edit]
Main article:Dungan alphabets

The modern Dungan language is the only Chinese language that is written in the Cyrillic alphabet, as they lived under Soviet rule. It is a Russian-based alphabet plus five additional letters:Ә,Җ,Ң,Ў andҮ. As such, it differs from thePalladius System that is normally used in Russia to render Chinese in Cyrillic.

Books in Dungan or about Dungan (in Russian or English). Most of them were published inFrunze,Kirghiz SSR in the 1970s and 80s
Bilingual sign in Dungan and Russian respectively, at the home of Soviet war heroMansuz Vanakhun [ru]
Modern Dungan alphabet and letter pronunciations
CyrillicА/аБ/бВ/вГ/гД/дЕ/еЁ/ёӘ/әЖ/жҖ/җЗ/зИ/иЙ/йК/к
Nameaбэвэгэдэeёәжэҗeзэийикa
IPA[a][pɛ][vɛ][kɛ][tɛ][je][jɔ][ɤ][ʐɛ][t͡ɕʲe][t͡sɛ][i][ʝi][kʰa]
Latinabevegedeyeyoêrejiezeiyika
CyrillicЛ/лМ/мН/нҢ/ңО/оП/пР/рС/сТ/тУ/уЎ/ўҮ/үФ/фХ/х
Nameэльэмэныңoпээрэcтэуўүэфxa
IPA[ɛlʲ][ɛm][ɛn][ɨŋ][ɔ][pʰɛ][əɻ][ɛs][tʰɛ][ʊw][u][y][ɛf][xa]
Latinelemenîngopeeresteuûüefha
CyrillicЦ/цЧ/чШ/шЩ/щЪ/ъЫ/ыЬ/ьЭ/эЮ/юЯ/я
Nameцэчэшaщaнин xoыван xoэюйa
IPA[t͡sʰɛ][t͡ʂʰɛ][ʂa][ɕa][nʲɪ̃xɔ][ɨ][vãxɔ][ɛ][jʊw][ja]
Latincecheshash(i)anin hoîvan hoeyuya
  • The letters ъ and ь are only used to write Russian loanwords and tone markings on children's primers dictionaries.[10][better source needed]

Dungan is unique in that it is one of the fewvarieties of Chinese that is not normally written usingChinese characters. Though it may be seen written in Chinese characters, this writing system is now considered obsolete. Originally, the Dungan, as descendants of theHui, wrote their language in an Arabic-based alphabet known asXiao'erjing. TheSoviet Union banned all Arabic scripts in 1925,[11] which led to aLatin orthography based onYañalif. The Latin orthography lasted until 1940, when the Soviet governmentpromulgated the currentCyrillic-based system. Xiao'erjing is now virtually extinct in Dungan society, but it remains in limited use by some Hui communities in China.

The writing system is based on the standard 3-tone dialect. Tone marks or numbering do not appear in general-purpose writing, but are specified in dictionaries, even forloanwords. The tones are specified using the soft sign, hard sign, or none.

Comparison with Palladius system

[edit]
PinyinPalladiyDunganPinyinPalladiyDunganPinyinPalladiyDunganPinyinPalladiyDungan
bббpппmммfфф
dддtттnнн / лlлл
zцззcццsсс
jцз(ь)җ(ь)qц(ь)ч(ь)xс(ь)щ(ь)
zhчжҗchччshшш / с / фrжж
gггkккhхх

Grammar

[edit]

Classifiers

[edit]
Further information:Chinese classifier

Chinese varieties usually have differentclassifiers for different types of nouns, with northern varieties tending to have fewer classifiers than southern ones.個 ([kə]) is the only classifier found in the Dungan language, though not the onlymeasure word.[12]

Vocabulary

[edit]

Thebasilects of Gansu/Shaanxi Mandarin and Dungan are largelymutually intelligible; Chinese journalists conversant in one of those Mandarin dialects report that they can make themselves understood when communicating with Dungan speakers. However, even at the level of basic vocabulary, Dungan contains many words not present in modern Mandarin dialects, such asRussian,Arabic,Turkic, andPersianloanwords. Svetlana suggests that the Arabic, Turkic and Persian influences are limited mostly to common personal names (such asFatima andMukhamed) and to days of the week. About 9% of Dungan words are Russian in origin.[7] Furthermore, Dungan contains some archaicQing dynasty-era Chinese vocabulary. Because of this, some Dungan vocabulary may sound archaic to Chinese people. For example, they refer to a President as an "Emperor" (Хуаңды/皇帝,huan'g-di) and call government officesyamen (ямын/衙門,ya-min), a term for mandarins' offices in ancient China.[13]

Furthermore, theacrolects of Dungan and Gansu/Shaanxi Mandarin have diverged significantly due to time and cultural influences. During the 20th century, translators and intellectuals introduced manyneologisms andcalques into the Chinese language, especially for political and technical concepts. However, the Dungan, cut off from the mainstream of Chinese discourse by orthographic barriers, instead borrowed words for those same concepts from Russian, with which they came into contact through government and higher education. As a result of these borrowings, the equivalent standard Chinese terms are not widely known or understood among the Dungan.[14]

Media

[edit]

A number of books in the Dungan language, which includes textbooks, Dungan-Russian and Russian-Dungan dictionaries, a Dungan etymological dictionary, collections of folk tales, original and translated fiction, and poetry have been published in Kyrgyzstan. Usual print runs were no more than a few hundred copies. A newspaper in Dungan has been published as well.

Many literary works of Dungan poetIasyr Shivaza have been translated into Russian, Standard Chinese and a number of other languages, with print runs in some of them been much higher than in the original Dungan. English translations of some of them, along with the original Dungan text, are available in the book by S. Rimsky-Korsakoff (1991).

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^Dungan atEthnologue (27th ed., 2024)Closed access icon
  2. ^"Dungan".
  3. ^abcDru C. Gladney,Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. 1st ed.: Harvard University Press, 1991,ISBN 0-674-59495-9; 2nd ed., 1996.ISBN 0-674-59497-5. Pages 393-394 in the 1991 edition. The following pages in this book, 321–395, are occupied by "A Select Glossary of Hui Chinese Islamic Terms", into which Gladney included only words (many found in older publications) that he could verify as known or recognized by people in at least some Hui communities he visited.
  4. ^Gladney (1991), p. 68
  5. ^Owen Lattimore,The Desert Road to Turkestan. London, Methuen & Co, ca. 1928–1929. Page 196.
  6. ^Gladney, pp 33, 102
  7. ^abRimsky-Korsakoff Dyer, Svetlana (1977). "Soviet Dungan nationalism: a few comments on their origin and language".Monumenta Serica.33:349–362.doi:10.1080/02549948.1977.11745054. p. 351.
  8. ^abcRimsky-Korsakoff, Svetlana (1967)."SOVIET DUNGAN: THE CHINESE LANGUAGE OF CENTRAL ASIA: Alphabet, Phonology, Morphology".Monumenta Serica.26:352–421.ISSN 0254-9948.
  9. ^Hashimoto, Mantaro J. (1978)."Current Developments in Zhunyanese (soviet Dunganese) Studies / ????????".Journal of Chinese Linguistics.6 (2):243–267.ISSN 0091-3723.
  10. ^ab"Dungan language, alphabet and pronunciation".www.omniglot.com. Retrieved2019-11-18.
  11. ^Dietrich, Ayşe. "Soviet and Post-soviet Language Policies in The Central Asian Republics and The Status of Russian".Ayk.gov.tr.S2CID 173988643.
  12. ^Yue, Anne O. (2003)."Chinese dialects: grammar". In Thurgood, Graham; LaPolla, Randy J. (eds.).The Sino-Tibetan languages. Routledge. pp. 84–125.ISBN 978-0-7007-1129-1.
  13. ^"The "Shaanxi Village" in Kazakhstan". China Radio International - CRIENGLISH.com. 2004-07-09. Archived fromthe original on 2006-04-24.
  14. ^Mair, Victor (May 1990)."Implications of the Soviet Dungan Script for Chinese Language Reform".Sino-Platonic Papers (18).

Sources

[edit]
General references
  • Rimsky-Korsakoff, Svetlana (1967). "Soviet Dungan: The Chinese language of Central Asia: alphabet, phonology, morphology".Monumenta Serica.26:352–421.doi:10.1080/02549948.1967.11744973.JSTOR 40725857.
  • Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff Dyer,Iasyr Shivaza: The Life and Works of a Soviet Dungan Poet. 1991.ISBN 3-631-43963-6. (Contains a detailed bibliography and ample samples of Shivaza works', some in the original Cyrillic Dungan, although most in a specialized transcription, with English and sometimes standard Chinese translations).
  • Olga I. Zavjalova. "Some Phonological Aspects of the Dungan Dialects." Computational Analyses of Asian and African Languages. Tokyo, 1978. No. 9. Pp. 1–24. (Contains an experimental analysis of Dungan tones).
  • Olga Zavyalova. “Dungan Language.” Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics. General Editor Rint Sybesma. Vol. 2. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 2017. pp. 141–148.
  • Hai Feng (海峰). 《中亚东干语言研究》 (Zhongya Donggan yuyan yanjiu—A Study of the Dungan Language of Central Asia.) Urumchi, 2003.ISBN 7-5631-1789-X. (Description of the Dungan language by a professor of Xinjiang University).
  • Salmi, Olli (2018).Dungan–English Dictionary. Manchester, England: Eastbridge Books.ISBN 978-1-78869-154-3.

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