Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over aduchy, or of a member ofroyalty, ornobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked belowemperors,kings,grand princes,grand dukes, and above sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they are ranked below grand dukes and above or below princes, depending on the country or specific title. The title comes from Frenchduc, itself from theLatindux, 'leader', a term used inrepublican Rome to refer to a military commander without an official rank (particularly one ofGermanic orCeltic origin), and later coming to mean the leading military commander of a province. In most countries, the wordduchess is the female equivalent.
Following the reforms of the emperorDiocletian (which separated the civilian and military administrations of the Roman provinces), adux became the military commander in each province. The titledux, Hellenised todoux, survived in theEastern Roman Empire where it continued in several contexts, signifying a rank equivalent to a captain or general. Later on, in the 11th century, the titleMegas Doux was introduced for the post of commander-in-chief of the entire navy.
During theMiddle Ages, the title (asHerzog) signified first among theGermanic monarchies. Dukes were the rulers of the provinces and the superiors of thecounts in the cities and later, in thefeudal monarchies, the highest-ranking peers of the king. A duke may or may not be,ipso facto, a member of the nation'speerage: in the United Kingdom and Spain, all dukes are/were also peers of the realm, in France, some were and some were not, while the term is not applicable to dukedoms of other nations, even where an institution similar to the peerage (e.g.Grandeeship,Imperial Diet,Hungarian House of Magnates) existed.
During the 19th century, many of the smaller German and Italian states were ruled by dukes or grand dukes. But at present, with the exception of theGrand Duchy of Luxembourg, there are no dukes ruling as monarchs. Duke remains the highest hereditary title (aside from titles borne by a reigning orformerly reigning dynasty) in Portugal (though now a republic), Spain, and the United Kingdom. In Sweden, members of the royal family are given a personal dukedom at birth. The Pope, as a temporal sovereign, has also, though rarely, granted the title of duke or duchess to persons for services to theHoly See. In some realms the relative status of "duke" and "prince", as titles borne by thenobility rather than by members of reigning dynasties, varied—e.g., in Italy and Germany.
A duchy is the territory or geopolitical entity ruled by a duke, whereas his title or area is often called a dukedom. TheGrand Duchy of Luxembourg is a fully independent state and its head, the Grand Duke, is a sovereign monarch reigning over his Luxembourgish subjects.
TheDuke of Cornwall holds both the dukedom (title) and duchy (estate holdings), the latter being the source of his personal income; those living on the ducal estates are subjects of the British sovereign and owe neither fealty nor services to the dukeper se.[citation needed] In Scotland, the male heir apparent to the British crown is always theDuke of Rothesay as well, but this is a dukedom (title) without a duchy. Similarly, the British monarch rules and owns theDuchy of Lancaster asDuke of Lancaster, but it is held separately from the Crown, with the income of the duchy estates providing the sovereign'sPrivy Purse.
The Channel Islands are two of the three remainingCrown Dependencies, the last vestiges of the lands of the Duchy of Normandy. The Islanders in their loyal toast will say "Le Roi, notre Duc" (The King, Our Duke). Though the title was apparently renounced under theTreaty of Paris in 1259, the Crown still maintains that the title is retained: "In 1106, William's youngest son Henry I seized the Duchy of Normandy from his brother Robert; since that time, the English sovereign has always held the titleDuke of Normandy", and that "By 1205, England had lost most of its French lands, including Normandy. However, the Channel Islands, part of the lost Duchy, remained a self-governing possession of the English Crown. While the islands today retain autonomy in government, they owe allegiance to The King in his role as Duke of Normandy."[1]
During theMiddle Ages, after Roman power in Western Europe collapsed, the title was still employed in the Germanic kingdoms, usually to refer to the rulers of old Roman provinces.
TheVisigoths retained the Roman divisions of their kingdom in theIberian Peninsula and it seems that dukes ruled over these areas.[citation needed] They were the most powerful landowners and, along with the bishops, elected the king, usually from their own midst. They were the military commanders and in this capacity often acted independently from the king, most notably in the latter period before the Muslim invasions.
The army was structured decimally with the highest unit, thethiufa, probably corresponding to about 1,000 people from eachcivitas (city district). The cities were commanded by counts, who were in turn answerable to the dukes, who called up thethiufae when necessary.
When theLombards entered Italy, the Latin chroniclers called their war leadersduces in the old fashion. These leaders eventually became the provincial rulers, each with a recognized seat of government. Though nominally loyal to the king, the concept of kingship was new to the Lombards and the dukes were highly independent, especially in central and southern Italy, where theDuke of Spoleto and theDuke of Benevento werede facto sovereigns. In 575, whenCleph died, a period known as theRule of the Dukes, in which the dukes governed without a king, commenced. It lasted only a decade before the disunited magnates, to defend the kingdom from external attacks, elected a new king and even diminished their own duchies to provide him with a handsome royaldemesne.
The Lombard kings were usually drawn from the duke pool when the title was not hereditary. The dukes tried to make their own offices hereditary. Beneath them in the internal structure were the counts andgastalds, a uniquely Lombard title initially referring to judicial functions, similar to a count's, in provincial regions.
The Franks employed dukes as the governors of Roman provinces, though they also led military expeditions far from their duchies. The dukes were the highest-ranking officials in the realm, typically Frankish (whereas the counts were often Gallo-Roman), and formed the class from which the kings' generals were chosen in times of war. The dukes met with the king every May to discuss policy for the upcoming year, the so-calledMayfield.
InBurgundy andProvence, the titles ofpatrician andprefect were commonly employed instead of duke, probably for historical reasons relating to the greater Romanization of those provinces. But the titles were basically equivalent.
In lateMerovingian Gaul, themayors of the palace of theArnulfing clan began to use the titledux et princeps Francorum: 'duke and prince of the Franks'. In this title,duke implied supreme military control of the entire nation (Francorum, the Franks) and it was thus used until the end of theCarolingian dynasty in France in 987.
The stem duchies were the constituent duchies of the kingdom of Germany at the time of the extinction of the Carolingian dynasty (the death of Louis the Child in 911) and the transitional period leading to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire later in the 10th century.
In Anglo-Saxon England, where the Roman political divisions were largely abandoned, the highest political rank beneath that of king wasealdorman, and the first ealdormen were referred to asduces (the plural of the original Latindux) in the chronicles. The title ealdorman was replaced by theDanisheorl (laterearl) over time. After theNorman conquest, their power and regional jurisdiction was limited to that of the Normancounts.[2]
The title ofDuke of Lancaster was created by Edward III in 1351 forHenry of Grosmont, but became extinct upon the duke's death in 1361. The following year, Edward III bestowed the title (2nd creation) on his fourth son,John of Gaunt, who was also married to the first duke's daughter. On the same day Edward III also created his second son,Lionel of Antwerp, asDuke of Clarence.
By 1483, a total of 16 ducal titles had been created: Cornwall, Lancaster, Clarence, Gloucester, York,Ireland,Hereford,Aumale,Exeter,Surrey,Norfolk,Bedford,Somerset,Buckingham,Warwick andSuffolk. Some became extinct, others had multiple creations, and some had merged with the crown upon the holder's accession to the throne. When thePlantagenet dynasty came to an end at theBattle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485, only four ducal titles remained extant, of which two were now permanently associated with the crown.John de la Pole was Duke of Suffolk andJohn Howard was Duke of Norfolk (2nd creation), while the duchy of Cornwall was reserved as a title and source of income for the eldest son of the sovereign, and the duchy of Lancaster was now held by the monarch.
Norfolk perished alongsideRichard III at Bosworth field, and the title was forfeit. It was restored to his sonThomas thirty years later byHenry VIII, as one of a number of dukes created or recreated by theTudor dynasty over the ensuing century. England's premier ducal title, Norfolk, remains in the Howard family to this day.
Since the unification of Italy in 1870 and the end of monarchy in Germany in 1918, there have no longer been anyreigning dukes in Europe;Luxembourg is ruled by agrand duke, a higher title, just below king.
All dukedoms in the UK apart from the Dukedom of Lancaster and the Dukedom of Edinburgh, which is held for life by the current duke, are inherited through the male line only, although dukedoms such as Marlborough and Fife (second creation) have passed through the female line for one generation under terms of aspecial remainder for lack of male heirs of the initial grantee. Henrietta, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough and Her Highness Princess Alexandra (HRH Princess Arthur of Connaught), 2nd Duchess of Fife were duchesses in their own right. Both were succeeded in their titles by nephews born by younger sisters of the duchesses. The wordduchess is normally only used for the wife of a duke.
Dukes of Lancaster are called dukes even when they are female, and by tradition the monarch of the UK, whether male or female, is known in the Channel Islands as the Duke of Normandy.
"Royal duke" redirects here. For the South Korean car, seeDaewoo Royale Duke.
Various royal houses traditionally awarded titles of nobility (mainly dukedoms) to the sons, and in some cases daughters, of their sovereigns; others include at least one dukedom in a wider list of similarly granted titles, nominal dukedoms without any actual authority, often even without an estate. Such titles are still conferred on royal princes or princesses in the current European monarchies of Belgium, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
Other historical cases occurred for example in Denmark, Finland (as a part of Sweden) and France, Portugal and some former colonial possessions such as Brazil and Haiti.
In Belgium, the title ofDuke of Brabant (historically the most prestigious in theLow Countries, and containing the federal capitalBrussels) is awarded to theheir apparent of the monarch, other dynasts receiving various lower historical titles (much older than Belgium, and in principle never fallen to the Belgian crown), such asCount of Flanders (King Leopold III's so-titled brotherCharles held the title when he became the realm's temporary head of state asprince-regent) and Prince of Liège (a secularised version of the historicalprince-bishopric; e.g.King Albert II until he succeeded his older brotherBaudouin I).
When theChristianReconquista, sweeping theMoors from the formerCaliphate of Córdoba and itstaifa-remnants, transformed the territory of formerSuevic andVisigothic realms intoCatholicfeudal principalities, none of these warlords was exactly styled duke. A few (asPortugal itself) started as count (even if the title ofdux was sometimes added), but soon all politically relevant princes came to use the royal style of king.
From the reign of kingManuel I, the title ofDuke of Beja was given to the second son of the monarch. This was changed during the Liberal regime in the 19th century (withQueen Maria II), when the first infante (second son of the monarch) got the title ofDuke of Porto and the second infante (third son) was known as Duke of Beja.
There are examples of duke as a subsidiary title, granted to the most powerful noble houses:
Usually, the title of duke was granted to relatives of the royal family, such as the infantes or natural sons of the monarch. There are exceptions, such asAntónio José de Ávila, who, although not having any relation to the royal family, was given the title ofDuke of Ávila and Bolama in the 19th century.
Spanish infantes and infantas are usually given a royal dukedom upon marriage, excepting the heir apparent who is thePrince of Asturias. Those titles are nowadays not hereditary but carry agrandeeship of Spain. The current royal duchesses areInfanta Margarita, Duchess of Soria (although she inherited the title ofDuchess of Hernani from her cousin and is the second holder of the title), andInfanta Elena, Duchess of Lugo. In Spain all dukes hold the court rank of grandee, which has precedence over all other noble titles.
The last non-royal hereditary dukedom created was the title ofDuke of Suárez in favour of former primer ministerAdolfo Suárez in 1981. Since the accession ofKing Felipe VI to thethrone in 2014, no new noble title has been created.[3][4]
In the 1260sBirger Jarl bore a ducal coronet and used theLatin title ofDux Sweorum (Latin for "Duke of the Swedes"); the design of his coronet combined those used by continental European and English dukes.[5]BishopBengt Birgersson (1254–1291) was the firstDuke of Finland[6]
The Northern European duchies ofHalland,Jutland,Lolland,Osilia andReval existed in the Middle Ages. The longest-surviving duchy wasSchleswig, i.e.,Sonderjylland (a portion of which later became part of Germany). Its southern neighbor, the duchy ofHolstein, in personal union with the Danish crown, was nonetheless always a German principality. The two duchies jointly became a member of the GermanBundesland as "Schleswig-Holstein" in the 19th century.
Beginning in the 11th century, Danish kings frequently awarded the title ofjarl (earl) or duke ofSchleswig to a younger son of the monarch. Short-lived dukedoms were created for the same purpose inLolland andHalland.
After the accession to the throne ofChristian I, a complex system of appanages were created for male-line descendants of the king, being granted non-sovereign ducal titles in both Schleswig andHolstein, e.g.Duke of Gottorp, Duke of Sønderborg,Duke of Augustenborg, Duke of Franzhagen, Duke of Beck,Duke of Glücksburg and Duke of Nordborg. This arrangement occurred in both territories despite Schleswig being a fief of Denmark and Holstein being a fief of theHoly Roman Empire.
Key parts of Finland were sometimes under a Duke of Finland during the Swedish reign (until 1809). Some of the provinces are still considered duchies for the purposes of heraldry.
In Norway,Skule Bårdsson was firstjarl in 1217, and as such got responsibility for the army, and then in 1237, as another attempt at compromise, Skule was given the first Norwegian title of duke (hertug). There is no indication that those two titles meant the same thing, or was mixed. He was firstjarl, and then alsohertug, but after he becamehertug he kept the titlejarl.
Sweden has a history of making the sons of its kings ruling princes of vast duchies, but this ceased in 1622. Only one non-royal person was ever given a dukedom.
In 1772, KingGustav III reinstated the appointment of titular dukes but as a non-hereditary title for his brothers. Since then, all Swedish princes have been created dukes of a province at birth. When the1810 Act of Succession was amended to allow female succession to the throne, KingCarl XVI Gustaf's eldest daughterVictoria became Crown Princess (displacing her younger brotherCarl Philip) and received the title of Duchess of Västergötland. The practice of conferring ducal titles has since extended to Swedish princesses as well as princes. Currently, there are five dukes and four duchesses in their own right. The territorial designations of these dukedoms refer to ten of theProvinces of Sweden.
The highest precedence in the realm, attached to a feudal territory, was given to the twelve originalpairies (en:peers), who also had a traditional function in the royal coronation, comparable to the German imperial archoffices.
Half of them were ducal: three ecclesiastical (the six prelates all ranked above the six secular peers of the realm) and three temporal, each time above three counts of the same social estate.
ThePrince-Bishops with ducal territories among them were:
TheArchbishop of Reims, styledarchevêque-duc pair de France (in Champagne; who crowns and anoints the king, traditionally in his cathedral)
the bishop-duke ofLaon (in Picardy; bears the 'Sainte Ampoule' containing the sacred ointment)
the bishop-duc deLangres (in Burgundy; bears the scepter)
Later, theArchbishop of Paris was given the title ofduc de Saint-Cloud with the dignity of peerage, but it was debated if he was an ecclesiastical peer or merely a bishop holding a lay peerage.
The secular dukes in the peerage of the realm were, again in order of precedence:
TheDuke of Burgundy orduc de Bourgogne (known asGrand duc; not a separate title at that time; just a description of the wealth and real clout of the 15th-century dukes, cousins of the kings of France) (bears the crown, fastens the belt)
TheDuke of Normandy orduc de Normandie(holds the first square banner)
TheDuke of Aquitaine orduc d'Aquitaine orde Guyenne (holds the second square banner)
The theory of the participation of the peers in the coronation was laid down in the late 13th century, when some of the peerage (the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Toulouse) had already been merged in the crown.
At the end of this same century, the king elevated some counties into duchies, a practice that increased up until the Revolution. Many of these duchies were also peerages (the so-called 'new peerages').
In Northern Italy, Germany and Austria the title of "duke" (duca in Italian, andHerzog in German) was quite common. As theHoly Roman Empire (HRE) was until its dissolution a feudal structure, most of its Dukes were actually reigning in their lands. As the titles from the HRE were taken over after its dissolution, or in Northern Italy after their territories became independent of the Empire, both countries also had a share of fully sovereign dukes. Also, in Germany in many ducal families every agnate would bear the ducal title of the family as acourtesy title.
In Austria, "Archduke" was the title borne from 1358 by theHabsburg rulers of theArchduchy of Austria, and later by all senior members of that dynasty.
In theKingdom of Hungary no ducal principalities existed but duchies were often formed for members of the dynasty asappanages. During the rule of theÁrpád dynasty dukes held territorial powers, some of them even minted coins, but later this title became more often nominal.These duchies usually were
the Duchy of Nitra
the Duchy of Bihar
the Duchy ofTransylvania (consisting of thevoivodship of Transylvania and some other counties)
In the Jagiellonian era (1490–1526) only two dukes did not belong to the royal dynasty:John Corvin (the illegitimate son ofMatthias Corvinus) andLőrinc Újlaki (whose father was the titular king ofBosnia), and both bore the title as royal dukes.
After theBattle of Mohács the Habsburg kings rewarded Hungarian aristocrats (like theEsterházys) with princely titles, but they created these titles as Holy Roman Emperors, not as kings of Hungary.
The Byzantines retained the titledux, transcribed as δούξ (doux) inMedieval Greek. As in the later Roman Empire, it remained a military office and was not a feudal or hereditary rank. In the 10th century, it was given to the military commanders over severalthemata (also known askatepano), and in the late 11th century it became used for the governor of athema.
When the Catholic crusaders overran the Byzantine Empire in theFourth Crusade, they installed severalcrusader states (seeFrankokratia), some of which were of ducal rank:
Generally, confusion reigns whether to translate the usual ruler titles,knyaz/ knez/ książe etc. as Prince (analogous to the German Fürst) or as Duke;
In splinteredPoland petty principalities generally ruled by branches of the earlier PolishPiast dynasty are regarded as duchies in translated titulary. Examples of such:Kujavia,Masovia,Sandomir,Greater Poland andKalisz as well as various minor duchies, often short-lived or in personal union or merger, named after their capitals, mainly in the regions known asLittle Poland andGreater Poland, including (there are often also important Latin or German forms)Kraków,Łęczyca andSieradz.
InPomerelia andPomerania (inhabited by the Kashubians, different Slavic people from the Poles proper), branches of native ruling dynasties were usually recognized as dukes, quite similarly to the pattern in Poland.
In Russia, before the imperial unification fromMuscovy; sometimes even as vassal, tributary to a TartarKhan; later, in Peter the Great's autocratic empire, the russificationgertsog was used as the Russian rendering of the German ducal titleHerzog, especially as (the last) part of the full official style of the Russian Emperor:Gertsog Shlesvig-Golstinskiy, Stormarnskiy, Ditmarsenskiy I Oldenburgskiy I prochaya, I prochaya, i prochaya "Duke of Schleswig-Holstein [see above],Stormarn,Dithmarschen and Oldenburg, and of other lands", in chief of German and Danish territories to which the Tsar was dynastically linked.
InLithuania, the approximate equivalent of a duke or prince was calledkunigaikštis in the Lithuanian language. Latin translation wasdux meaning "duke" in the Middle Ages, whereas Latin for "prince" isprinceps. The overall leader of the Lithuanian dukes (Lith. plural:kunigaikščiai) was thegrand duke (Lith.:didysis kunigaikštis,Latin:magnus dux), who acted as the monarch of theGrand Duchy of Lithuania until 1795 when Russians took over the land.
After Belgium and the Netherlands separated in 1830, the title of duke no longer existed in the Netherlands. There is, however, one exception; the titleHertog van Limburg (Duke of Limburg) still exists. This title, however, is an exclusive title for the head of state (the monarch, i.e., the king or queen of the Netherlands).
In Georgia, the title oferistavi is equivalent to duke. The word means "head of the nation" or "head of the army". A duke ruled a duchy (saeristavo); a duke of two or more duchies was callederistavt-eristavi, duke of dukes.
In the 6th to 9th centuries,Iberia was ruled byErismtavari, a title similar togrand duke. Erismtavari was the first among equal dukes.
Georgians use the titleeristavi only for Georgian dukes. When talking about foreign dukes, they use the German wordHerzog, which is the German equivalent of "duke".
In the late 15th and early 16th century, the kingdom of Georgia collapsed and most of the western Georgian dukes became princes. In the 19th century the title oferistavi was abolished by the Russian conquerors and the former dukes took the wordEristavi as their last names.
In theEmpire of Brazil duke was the highest rank for people born outside the imperial house and only three dukedoms were created. Two of these titles were for relatives ofEmperor Pedro I: an illegitimate daughter and abrother-in-law who received the title when married to Pedro I's daughterMaria II. The third, given toLuís Alves de Lima e Silva, was the only dukedom created during the reign ofPedro II. None of these titles were hereditary, just like every other title in the Brazilian nobility system.
The royalChristophe dynasty created eight hereditary dukedoms, in rank directly below the nominal princes. They were short-lived and only recognized in the country.
Like other major Western noble titles, Duke is sometimes used to render (translate) certain titles in non-western languages. "Duke" is used even though those titles are generally etymologically and often historically unrelated and thus hard to compare. However, they are considered roughly equivalent, especially in hierarchic aristocracies such as feudal Japan, useful as an indication of relative rank.
TheIndian feudal system cannot be fully translated to its European counterparts. The closest equivalent to the title of Sovereign Duke isRao andNawab to a feudalduchy, a largejagir. Thus, a Rao (in the ruling system) or a Jagirdar, Deshmukh, Patil, and Zamindar (in a feudal way) are closely equivalent to a Duke.
Duke in Turkey, Afghanistan, and Iran after Mongolian war against them, was added as generals and kings of districts or states. In the Kingdom of Persians and Ottomans, the systems cannot be fully translated to its European counterparts so they called those generals and kings asKhan, a Mongolian royal and noble rank from the Turco-Mongol word for "lord", analogous to Duke. After revolutions and the falling Empire system in those countries (changing the ruling system to democratic and republic systems), those Khans and the other equal ranks titles added to the titleholder's surnames, and the ranking system, as usual, was disqualified as an official ranking.
During the era offengjian inAncient China (Western Zhou,Spring and Autumn period and theWarring States period), thetitle ofgōng (公; sometimes translated as "Duke", sometimes as "Lord") was sparingly granted. Under the principle of "Three Deferences and Two Royal Descendants" (三恪二王後), the three former royal houses were granted the title ofgōng; however, not all scholars recognize such a tradition in the Western Zhou dynasty. For that dynasty, this would be the descendants of theXia dynasty andShang dynasty; their dukedoms were respectivelyQi (杞) andSong (宋). According to tradition, these states were considered the king's guests rather than subjects. However, recent scholarship has identified multiple other meanings forgōng, including the patriarch of a lineage, a non-inheritable title signifying a very broad and senior position within the court, or a respectful appellation for any regional ruler or deceased ancestor.[8]
In works likeMencius[9]: 106 and others that date to theWarring States period,gōng was interpreted as the highest in the "five ranks of nobles" (五等爵) attributed to the Western Zhou dynasty.[10] However, the title was not in use until the end of the Western Han,[9]: 126 granted to the descendants of theShang and Zhou royal houses and the eventual usurperWang Mang. It was also granted toCao Cao.[11] The title during the Han was inferior to that of prince (諸侯王), which was only available to imperial princes. The "five ranks of nobles" were implemented as such during theJin dynasty (晉朝).[9]: 127 During theSouthern dynasties, usurpers typically sought the title of duke, then prince, before compelling the monarch to abdicate.
TheDuke of Yansheng noble title was granted to the descendants ofConfucius. In 1935, theNationalist Government changed the title to Sacrificial Official to Confucius (大成至聖先師奉祀官), which still exists as a hereditary office of theRepublic of China.
The titlegōng and others were also awarded, sometimesposthumously, during the imperial period ofChinese history to recognize distinguished civil and military officials. These could include a taxable base for the official, or could be purely honorary. For example,Emperor Lizong of Song granted the posthumous title Duke of Hui (徽國公) to theNeo-Confucian thinkerZhu Xi.[12]
The Javanese kingdom ofMajapahit, which dominated eastern Java in the 14th and 15th centuries, was divided intonagara (provinces). The administration of thesenagara was entrusted to members of the royal family, who bore the title ofBhre—i.e.,Bhra I, "lord of" (the wordbhra being akin to theThaiPhra), followed by the name of the land they were entrusted with: for example, a sister of the kingHayam Wuruk (r. 1350–1389) was "Bhre Lasem", "lady ofLasem". This system was similar to theApanage system in Western Europe.[citation needed]
Sultan Agung, king ofMataram inCentral Java (r. 1613–1645), would entrust the administration of territories he gradually conquered all over the island of Java, to officials bearing the title ofAdipati, this title is hereditary. Such territories were calledKadipaten. Prior to the unification of Java by Sultan Agung, independentkadipatens also exist, e.g. theDuchy of Surabaya which wasconquered by Agung in 1625.
TheVOC (Dutch East Indies Company), while gradually taking control of Javanese territory, would maintain the existing Mataram administrative structure.Adipati were called "regenten" in Dutch,[citation needed] and the territories they administered, "regentschappen".
In the 19th century, the Javanese term for 'regent' wasbupati. French traveller Gérard Louis Domeny de Rienzi mentionsbapati.[13]
Thebupati have been maintained in the modern Indonesian administrative subdivision structure, heading akabupaten, the subdivision of aprovinsi or province.
The wordAdipati is still found in the official title of the hereditary dukesMangkunegara ofSurakarta andPaku Alam ofYogyakarta—i.e.,Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Arya (shortened into KGPAA).
In theKingdom of Benin, aviceroyalchieftain that is known as anEnogie in theEdo language is usually referred to as a duke in English. Often a cadet of the dynasty that produces theoba of Benin, the enogie is expected to rule his domain as he sees fit, subject to the approval of the oba.
InIfe,Oyo and the other kingdoms of NigerianYorubaland, a viceroyal chieftain is known as aBaale in theYoruba language. He is barred from wearing a crown as a matter of tradition and is generally seen as the reigning representative of hisoba, the monarch who has the right to wear one.
In Myanmar (Burma), since thePagan era of 11th century, each and every single one of the royal family received the title ofMyosa (alsoMyoza), literally means chief of town or territory, which is equivalent to the title of Duke. All royals were given the honor to possess at least one territory by the King. They all were mostly called by their possessions. For instance, Burma's last king,King Thibaw was called by his possession, when he was a prince, of a town Thibaw (Hsipaw inShan State).[14]
^"Channel Islands".The Official Website of the British Monarchy. The Royal Household. 2009. Archived fromthe original on 21 September 2012. Retrieved16 August 2013.
^abcLi Feng (2008). "Transmitting Antiquity: The Origin and Paradigmization of the "Five Ranks"". In Dieter Kuhn; Helga Stahl (eds.).Perceptions of Antiquity in Chinese Civilization. Würzberg: Würzburger Sinologische Schriften. pp. 103–134.
^Falkenhausen, Lothar von (1996). "The Concept of Wen in the Ancient Chinese Ancestral Cult".Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews.18: 7.doi:10.2307/495623.JSTOR495623.
^Grégoire Louis Domeny de Rienzi,Océanie ou cinquième partie du monde : revue géographique et ethnographique de la Malaisie, de la Micronésie, de la Polynésie et de la Mélanésie, ainsi que ses nouvelles classifications et divisions de ces contrées, Firmin Didot Frères, Paris, 1834
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