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Duecento (UK:/ˌdjuːəˈtʃɛntoʊ/DEW-ə-CHEN-toh,[1]Italian:[ˌdu.eˈtʃɛnto];lit. 'two hundred',short for '1200'), orDugento,[2] is the Italian word for theItalian culture of the13th century—that is to say 1200 to 1299. It was during this period that the first shoots of theItalian Renaissance appeared in art and literature, to be further developed in the followingtrecento period.
This period grew out of theRenaissance of the 12th century and movements originating elsewhere, such as theGothic architecture of France. Most of the innovation in both the visual arts and literature was concentrated in the second half of the century, after about 1250, when major new directions opened up in both painting and sculpture, mostly in northern Italy, and theDolce Stil Novo (Sweet New Style) emerged in poetry.
In the 13th century, much ofEurope experienced strong economic growth. The trade routes of the Italian states linked with those of established Mediterranean ports and eventually theHanseatic League of the Baltic and northern regions of Europe to create a network economy in Europe for the first time since the 4th century. Thecity-states of Italy expanded greatly during this period and grew in power.
During this period, the modern commercial infrastructure developed, with the creation in Italy of thedouble-entry book-keeping,joint stock companies, an internationalbanking system, a systematizedforeign exchange market,insurance, andgovernment debt.[3] Florence became the centre of this financial industry and the goldflorin became the main currency of international trade. TheRepublic of Venice and theRepublic of Genova dominated the trade in the Mediterranean sea.
Many argue that the ideas that characterized the Renaissance had their origin in late 13th century Florence, in particular with the writings ofDante Alighieri (1265–1321)[4] as well as the painting ofGiotto (1267–1337).
The Duecento was followed by the beginning of theItalian Renaissance during theTrecento.
The thirteenth-century Italian literary revolution helped set the stage for the Renaissance. During this century, the standard modernItalian language began to be fixed, mainly as aliterary language. Previously each region used its own language, as many continue to do, at least in the common spoken language. The standard modern Italian language began in poetic and literary writings ofTuscan andSicilian writers of the 12th century, and the grammar and core lexicon are basically unchanged from those used in Florence in the 13th century.[5]
It was only in the 13th century that Italian authors began writing in their native language rather thanLatin,French, orProvençal. The 1250s saw a major change in Italian poetry as theDolce Stil Novo (Sweet New Style, which emphasizedPlatonic rather thancourtly love) came into its own, pioneered by poets likeGuittone d'Arezzo andGuido Guinizelli. Especially inpoetry, major changes inItalian literature had been taking place decades before the Renaissance truly began. An increasing number of works began to be written in the Italian language in addition to the flood of Latin and Greek texts that constituted the mainstream of the Italian Renaissance.
Written works expanded beyond works oftheology and towards the pre-Christian eras ofImperial Rome andAncient Greece. This is not to say that no religious works were written in this period. In the early years of the next centuryDante Alighieri'sThe Divine Comedy reflects a distinctly medieval world view, and did much to establish theTuscan language, in which it is written (also in most present-day Italian-market editions), as the standardizedItalian language.[6]
Christianity remained a major influence for artists and authors, with theclassics coming into their own as a second primary influence.
Literature in Latin continued to be written, with SaintThomas Aquinas'sSumma Theologica a massive and unfinished summary and exploration of thetheology of the medieval church, which has continued to be influential.
Italo-Byzantine (ormaniera greca) painting is a term forpanel paintings produced in Italy, and Western Europe generally, under heavy influence from theicons ofByzantine art, whose many variations of the subject of theMadonna and Child were copied, though the full Byzantine technique and style was not. This remained the predominant style in Italy until new developments came inTuscany and Rome later in the century, and remained common in many areas well into the next century and beyond.
The art of the region of Tuscany (and northern Italy) in the second half of the 13th century was dominated by two masters:Cimabue ofFlorence andDuccio ofSiena. Their commissions were mostly religious paintings, several of them being very large altarpieces showing the Madonna and Child. These two painters, with their contemporaries,Guido of Siena,Coppo di Marcovaldo and the mysterious painter upon whose style the school may have originated, the so-called Master of St Bernardino, all worked in a manner that was highly formalised and dependent upon the ancient tradition of icon painting.[7] Cimabue and Duccio both took steps in the direction of greater naturalism, as did their contemporary,Pietro Cavallini of Rome.
Giotto (born in 1266) by tradition a shepherd boy from the hills north of Florence, became Cimabue's apprentice and emerged as the most outstanding painter of his time,[8] though his most famous works came early in the following century. Giotto, possibly influenced byPietro Cavallini and other Roman painters, did not base the figures that he painted upon any painterly tradition, but upon the observation of life. Unlike those of his Byzantine-related contemporaries, Giotto's figures are solidly three-dimensional; they stand squarely on the ground, have discernible anatomy and are clothed in garments with weight and structure. But more than anything, what set Giotto's figures apart from those of his contemporaries are their emotions. In the faces of Giotto's figures are joy, rage, despair, shame, spite and love. The cycle offrescoes ofthe Life of Christ andthe Life of the Virgin that he painted in theScrovegni Chapel inPadua set a new standard for narrative pictures. HisOgnissanti Madonna hangs in theUffizi Gallery, Florence, in the same room as Cimabue'sSanta Trinita Madonna and Duccio'sRuccellai Madonna where the stylistic comparisons between the three can easily be made.[9] One of the features apparent in Giotto's work is his observation of naturalistic perspective. He is regarded as the herald of the Renaissance.[10]
Reliefs, as opposed tosculpture in the round, were a much larger proportion of fine sculpture than has been the case subsequently. Modern viewers are therefore relatively unused to the form, and inclined to overlook them. Until theLaocoön Group was dug up in the centre of Rome in 1506, the most dramatic and athletic poses in knownRoman sculptures were crowded reliefs on LateRoman sarcophagi, while the known statues were nearly all dignified but rather static standing portraits.[11]
Nicola Pisano (active c, 1240s to 1278) was the leading sculptor of whatErwin Panofsky called "the classicizing Proto-Renaissance". His major works were sets of reliefs, especially those on the large raisedpulpits of thepulpit in the Pisa Baptistery (dated 1260) andSiena Cathedral Pulpit. He had a large workshop, including his sonGiovanni Pisano, and the many sculptures on theGreat Fountain atPerugia (1277–1278) were probably designed by Nicola, but mostly carved by them. His larger panels show crowded scenes, sometimes combining scenes in a single composition, for example theAnnunciation andNativity of Christ at the Pisa baptistery; most depictions at this period would have shown two scenes in different compartments. Pisano's youth in his nativeApulia in the far south of Italy was passed whenFrederick II, Holy Roman Emperor reigned, and mostly lived there, promoting a Roman revival in the arts. Pisano is clearly influenced by study ofAncient Roman sarcophagi.[12]
The Pisa pulpit was probably originally polychrome, which had been usual for Italian Romanesque sculpture. It also seems to have largely carved by Nicola himself.[13] TheArca di San Domenico, a large free-standing tomb monument forSaint Dominic inBologna, was begun in 1264, though work by many other hands continued for centuries. Nicola and his team completed the reliefs around thesarcophagus.
Nicola's sonGiovanni Pisano took over his father's workshop in the 1280s, and was much more receptive to Gothic style than his father. HisPulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia is similar in form to his father's ones in Pisa and Siena, but shows a different style.[14] Over the next century Gothic and classical influences were found together in many large works, sometimes in contention.[15]
The other leading sculptor of the period wasArnolfo di Cambio (c. 1240 – 1300/1310), who was also an architect. Born inTuscany, he also trained with Nicola Pisano, and was his chief assistant on theSiena Cathedral Pulpit. After he began working as an independent master he spent two periods in Rome, bringing the new Tuscan style there. He worked on a number of papal tombs.
Italian Gothic architecture began to appear in the early Duecento in northern Italy, under influence from France. The first Italian Gothic edifices wereCistercian abbeys, soon followed byFranciscan andDominican churches. They spread in the whole Italian territory, often adapting the construction techniques to the local traditions.Brickwork was most common in thePo Valley, while stone prevailed in central Italy andTuscany, where polychrome wall decoration sometimes continued from the localRomanesque tradition.
The Dominican and Franciscan orders offriars, founded bySaint Dominic and SaintFrancis of Assisi respectively, became popular and well-funded in the period, and embarked on large building programmes, mostly using a cheaper and less highly decorated version of Gothic. Large schemes offresco murals were cheap, and could be used to instruct congregations. TheBasilica of Saint Francis of Assisi, in effect two large churches, one above the other on a hilly site, is one of the best examples, begun in 1228 and painted with frescos byCimabue,Giotto, and others in the next century.
The most important buildings includeChiaravalle Abbey in northern Italy andCasamari Abbey in central Italy. Among the non-Cistercian buildings of this century which were influenced by the Gothic style, though still presenting important Romanesque features, are theParma Baptistery byBenedetto Antelami and the church ofSant'Andrea inVercelli, also featuring Antelami's influences.
This century saw the construction of numerous Gothic buildings for the Mendicant Orders. The most important ones include:
Also notable is the civil and military construction program promoted by Emperor and King of SicilyFrederick II of Hohenstaufen insouthern Italy at the beginning of the century. The most important works promoted by him include:
In this period some cathedrals were also constructed or finished, such asSiena Cathedral.
L'italiano di oggi ha ancora in gran parte la stessa grammatica e usa ancora lo stesso lessico del fiorentino letterario del Trecento.
