Duchy of Savoy
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| Motto: FERT (Motto for theHouse of Savoy) | |||||||||||||||
 States of the Duke of Savoy around 1700; Savoy proper is in the northwest. | |||||||||||||||
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| Religion | Roman Catholicism | ||||||||||||||
| Demonym | Savoyard | ||||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||
| Duke | |||||||||||||||
• 1416–1440 | Amadeus VIII | ||||||||||||||
• 1831–1847 | Charles Albert | ||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Modern Era | ||||||||||||||
• County of Savoy raised toduchy | 1416 | ||||||||||||||
• Occupied byFrance | 1536–59, 1630, 1690–96, 1703–13 | ||||||||||||||
| 11 April 1713 | |||||||||||||||
• AcquiredKingdom of Sardinia in exchange for Sicily | 1720 | ||||||||||||||
• Annexed byRevolutionary France | 1792–1814 | ||||||||||||||
| 1847 | |||||||||||||||
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| Today part of | |||||||||||||||
TheDuchy of Savoy[1] was a territorial entity of theSavoyard state that existed from 1416 until 1847 and was a possession of theHouse of Savoy.It was created whenSigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, raised theCounty of Savoy into a duchy forAmadeus VIII. The duchy was an Imperial fief,[2][3][4][5] subject of theHoly Roman Empire, until 1792, with a vote in theImperial Diet. From the 16th century, Savoy belonged to theUpper Rhenish Circle.
Its territory included the current French departments ofSavoie,Haute-Savoie, and theAlpes-Maritimes, the current Italian region ofAosta Valley, a large part ofPiedmont and theCounty of Geneva in Switzerland, which was then lost to theOld Swiss Confederacy.[6] The mainVulgar languages that were spoken within the Duchy of Savoy wereArpitan andPiedmontese.
The Duchy of Savoy was the central and most prominent of the territories possessed by the House of Savoy, and hence this title was and still is used often to indicate the whole of their possessions.[7] In reality, the Savoys ruled not a unitary state, but a complex array of different entities and titles with different institutional, cultural, and legal backgrounds.[8] These included for example theDuchy of Aosta,Principality of Piedmont, andCounty of Nice, which were distinct and not juridically part of the Duchy of Savoy.[9][10][11] The Savoys themselves referred to their possessions as a whole as "the States of the Duke of Savoy" (Italian: "gli Stati del Duca di Savoia").[7] Today, historians use the termSavoyard state to indicate this entity, which is an example ofcomposite monarchy where many different and distinct territories are united in apersonal union by having the same ruler.[9][10][11]
The duchy was created in 1416 whenSigismund, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1433–1437) awarded the title of "Duke" to CountAmadeus VIII.[12][13][14]
Being landlocked at its conception in 1388, theCounty of Savoy acquired a few kilometres of coastline aroundNice. Other than this expansion, the 14th century was generally a time of stagnation. Pressure from neighbouring powers, particularlyFrance, prevented development, which characterized the rest of theRenaissance era for Savoy.
The reign of Amadeus VIII was a turning point for the economy and the policy of the state, which deeply marked the history of the nation. His long reign was highlighted by wars (the country expanded its territory by defeating theDuchy of Montferrat andMarquisate of Saluzzo), as well as reforms, edicts and some controversial actions. The first was in 1434, when he chose to withdraw to the Château de Ripaille, where, living the life of ahermit, he founded theOrder of St. Maurice. In 1439, he received an appointment asantipope, which he accepted (under the name of Felix V), although he subsequently resigned a decade later out of a fear of undermining the religious unity of Christians.
The second important action of the Government of Amadeus VIII was the creation of thePrincipality of Piedmont in August 1424, the management of which was entrusted to the firstborn of the family as a title of honor. The duke left the territory largely formed from the old Savoy domain.
As a cultured and refined man, Duke Amadeus gave great importance to art. Among others, he worked with the famousGiacomo Jaquerio in literature and architecture, encouraging the cultivation of the arts in the Italian Piedmont.
However, his first son Amedeo died prematurely in 1431 and was succeeded by his second sonLouis. Louis was in turn succeeded by the weakAmadeus IX, who was extremely religious (he was eventually declared blessed), but of little practical power, to the point that he allowed his wife,Yolande (Violante) of Valois, sister ofLouis XI, to make very important decisions. During this period, France was more or less free to control the affairs of Savoy, which bound Savoy to the crown in Paris.
The Duchy's economy suffered during these years, not only because of war, but also because of the poor administration by Violante. The future of the nation was entrusted to the hands of a boy,Philibert I, who died at the early age of seventeen, after reigning for ten years. He was succeeded byCharles I, who died aged 21, andCharles II, who died aged 6. As a consequence of its participation in theBurgundian Wars, Savoy lost all its possessions north and south-east ofLake Geneva to theSwiss.
WhenPhilibert II died in 1504, he was succeeded byCharles III the Good, and Savoy entered into a period of weak leadership. Later in 1515 as a part of theWar of the League of Cambrai, the French defeated the Swiss and Milanese at theBattle of Marignano, occupied Milan, and put all of northern Italy including Saluzzo, Genoa and Savoy under its influence.[15] KingFrancis I of France, however, was not satisfied and began to bide his time, just waiting for an opportunity to permanently annex Savoy and its possessions. Ultimately in 1536, Francis ordered the occupation of the duchy, which was invaded by a strong military contingent. Charles III realized too late the weakness of the state, and tried to defend the city ofTurin. However, the city was lost on 3 April of the same year. Charles III retreated toVercelli, trying to continue the fight, but never saw the state free from occupation.
Emmanuel Philibert was the duke who more than any other influenced the future policy of Savoy, managing to put an end to the more than twenty-year long occupation. ThePeace of Cateau-Cambrésis, signed in 1559, restored full autonomy to the duchy, with his marriage toMargaret of France.[16]
Emmanuel Philibert realized that Savoy could no longer trust France. He therefore moved the capital fromChambéry to Turin in 1562, which he protected with a complex system of fortifications known as the Cittadella (remnants of the Cittadella can still be seen, although it was largely destroyed by the subsequent expansion of the city). From his military experience inFlanders, Emmanuel Philibert learned how to run an army, having won the famousBattle of St. Quentin (1557). He was the first duke of Savoy to establish a stable military apparatus that was not composed of mercenaries but rather by specially trained Savoyard soldiers.
His son,Charles Emmanuel I, extended the duchy to the detriment of the lordships of Montferrat and the territory of Saluzzo, previously ceded to France, in 1601 under theTreaty of Lyon. The wars of Charles Emmanuel ended mostly in defeats. Nevertheless, he is remembered as "Charles the Great", since he was a versatile and cultured man, a poet and a skillful reformer. He was able to manage the duchy at a time of severe crisis vis-a-vis the European powers and found support from theHabsburgs. The policy of Charles Emmanuel was in fact based more on actions of international warfare, such as the possessions of the Marquis of Saluzzo, and the wars of succession in the duchies ofMantua and Montferrat. Generally, Savoy sided with Spain, but on occasion allied with France (as, for example, theTreaty of Susa required).
During the seventeenth century, the influence of the court ofVersailles put pressure on Savoy. Due to the proximity of the Spanish controlledDuchy of Milan and Savoyard defeats in the previous century, French troops were garrisoned in forts (such asPinerolo) in a number of key Alpine passes on the Italian side. This severely threatened the independence of the duchy.
During theThirty Years' War, Savoy was one of the states of the Holy Roman Empire that largely sided with France and against both the Emperor and Spain. Savoyard troops participated on the side of the French in theSavoyard-Genoese War, theWar of the Montferrat Succession, theTornavento campaign and, in part, in thePiedmontese Civil War, among other places.
The strong French influence, plus various misfortunes, repeatedly hit Savoy following the death of Charles Emmanuel I (26 July 1630). First of all, the plague ran rampant in 1630 and contributed significantly to the already widespread poverty.
TheWar of the Mantuan Succession (1628–1631) was very bloody in the countryside and subjectedCasale Monferrato to a long siege (1629). Developments of arms and politics affected the economy and future history, exacerbating the already difficult situation after the death ofVictor Amadeus I in 1637. He was succeeded for a short period of time by his eldest surviving son, the 5-year-oldFrancis Hyacinth. The post of regent for the next-oldest son,Charles Emmanuel II, also went to his motherChristine of France, whose followers became known asmadamisti (supporters ofMadama Reale). Because of this, Savoy became a satellite state of the regent's brother, KingLouis XIII of France. The supporters of CardinalPrince Maurice of Savoy andThomas Francis, Prince of Carignano (both sons of Charles Emmanuel I), together with their followers, took the name ofprincipisti (supporters of the Princes).
Each warring faction soonbesieged the city of Turin. Theprincipisti made early gains, severely looting Turin on 27 July 1639. Only in 1642 did the two factions reach an agreement; by now, the widow of Victor Amadeus I had placed Victor's son Charles Emmanuel II on the throne and ruled as regent in his place, even past his age of majority.
A resurgence of religious wars took place during the regency. Subsequently, in 1655, Savoyard troopsmassacred large numbers of the Protestant population of theWaldensian valleys, an event known as thePiedmontese Easter (Pasque Piedmont). Reports from the massacres spread quickly throughout Protestant Europe, sparking outrage, especially in Britain.[17] Lord ProtectorOliver Cromwell threatened the Duchy of Savoy with intervention, somewhat shaping the military decisions made by the Duke. On 18 August 1655, the Pinerolo Declaration of Mercy was issued, which constituted a peace treaty between Charles Emmanuel II and the Waldensians.[18]
The government of Charles Emmanuel II was the first step towards major reforms carried out by his successorVictor Amadeus II in the next century. Of particular importance were the founding of militias in Savoy and the establishment of the first public school-system in 1661. A cultured man, but also a great statesman, Charles Emmanuel imitated KingLouis XIV of France at the sumptuousPalace of Venaria, a masterpiece ofBaroque architecture, and a copy recreated in Italy of the magnificence of thePalace of Versailles. It was a time of great urban expansion, and Charles Emmanuel II promoted the growth of Turin and its reconstruction in the baroque style. After his death in 1675, there followed the period of the regency (1675–1684) of his widow, the newMadama Reale,Marie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours.
Charles Emmanuel II was succeeded by his 11-year-old son,Victor Amadeus II; his mother, the French bornMarie Jeanne Baptiste of Savoy-Nemours was regent. Marie Jeanne sought to marry her son to the daughter andheir presumptive of KingPeter II of Portugal. This could have led to the House of Savoy becoming rulers ofPortugal.
After Victor Amadeus II assumed power, Savoy became hostile to France, which invaded in theNine Years' War. Savoy defeated the French in thesiege of Cuneo, but was dramatically defeated in the battles ofStaffarda andMarsaglia. Savoy became a French satellite, and Victor Amadeus II marriedAnne Marie d'Orléans, niece of King Louis XIV.
Savoy remained a French ally during the first phase of theWar of the Spanish Succession, but changed sides later. France invaded again, and Savoy was saved byAustrian troops led by the Duke's cousin,Prince Eugene of Savoy at thesiege of Turin.
At the end of the war in 1713, Victor Amadeus II received theKingdom of Sicily. By theTreaty of London, Victor Amadeus II reluctantly exchanged Sicily forSardinia in 1720. The various dominions held in personal union by Victor Amadeus II included Sardinia, Savoy,Piedmont,Aosta,Nice, andOneglia. The collection was usually referred to as "Sardinia", meaning the kingdom.
Charles Emmanuel III, son and successor of Victor Amadeus II, joined theWar of the Austrian Succession and concluded it with a resounding victory against the French in theBattle of Assietta. In the subsequentTreaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) he gained parts of westernLombardy likeAngera andVigevano.
After theFrench Revolution, Savoy was invaded by theFrench Revolutionary Army in 1792 and annexed toFrance. Savoy was first incorporated as thedepartment ofMont-Blanc; then, in 1798, it was divided between the departments of Mont-Blanc andLéman. Part of Savoy was restored toVictor Emmanuel I in 1814 by theCongress of Vienna in 1814, with the remainder being returned in 1815 after theHundred Days.
Under the 1847Perfect Fusion, the duchy was merged with the other parts of the Savoyard state into the unitary Kingdom of Sardinia. Savoy itself would be given to France under the terms of theTreaty of Turin (1860).
The duchy was a notable regional military power, often getting involved in wars between the French and Habsburgs. In the 17th century, peacetime strength tended to hover around 4,800 professional soldiers (3,600 infantry and 1,200 cavalry), with a large peasant militia. In times of war, militiamen were trained and impressed and mercenaries were hired, and the size of the army quickly rose. In 1625, the duchy had an army of 26,600 regulars (25,381 infantry and 1,213 cavalry), plus about 8,000 militia. The regulars consisted of 5 to 7 regiments of Piedmontese, with mercenaries comprising the rest, including 9 regiments of French and 2 regiments of Italians. In 1635 the regular army was down to 12,250, then 15,710 in 1637, 18,000 in 1649, then 5,500 in the peacetime year of 1660, then 26,178 in 1672, and 35,000 in 1705 (with 10,000 militia called up to bolster them and more uncalled).[19]
The militia was relatively well-armed and consisted of 24,000 men in 1566, of whom about a third could be used outside of their immediate district.[20]
The flag of Savoy was a white cross on a red field. It is based on acrusader flag, and as such is identical in origin to the flag of theKnights of Malta (whence the modernFlag of Malta and of theSovereign Military Order of Malta), and others (flags ofDenmark andSwitzerland, with inverted colors to those ofEngland andGenoa, among others). In the 18th century, the letters "FERT" were sometimes added in the cantons to distinguish the flag from the Maltese one.
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1 Part of theThree Bishoprics. 2Nomeny after 1737. 3 withoutReichstag seat. 4 until 1736. 5 JoinedSwiss Confederacy in 1515. Circles est. 1500:Bavarian,Swabian,Upper Rhenish,Lower Rhenish–Westphalian,Franconian,(Lower) Saxon Circles est. 1512:Austrian,Burgundian,Upper Saxon,Electoral Rhenish · Unencircled territories | |||||
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