Duchy of Pomerania | |
|---|---|
| 1121–1160 1264–1295 1478–1531 1625–1637 | |
 Map of the Duchy of Pomerania from the 17th century | |
| Status | Vassal ofPoland (1121–1138) Independent (1138–1160) Vassal ofSaxony (1164–1181) Vassal of theHoly Roman Empire (1181–1185) Vassal ofDenmark (1185–1227) Vassal of the Holy Roman Empire (1227–1637) |
| Capital | Stettin (Szczecin) |
| Religion | Roman Catholic Lutheran |
| Government | Feudal duchy |
| Historical era | High Middle Ages |
| 1121 | |
• Partition into Wolgast and Stettin | 1295 |
• Reunited underBogislaw X | 1478 |
• JoinedUpper Saxon Circle | 1512 |
• Divided again into P.-Wolgast and P.-Stettin | 1532 |
• Occupied byGustavus Adolphus of Sweden | 1630 |
• Death of Duke Bogislaw XIV | 10 March 1637 |
| Today part of | Poland Germany |
TheDuchy of Pomerania (German:Herzogtum Pommern;Polish:Księstwo pomorskie;Latin:Ducatus Pomeraniae) was a duchy inPomerania on the southern coast of theBaltic Sea, ruled by dukes of theHouse of Pomerania (Griffins). The country existed in the Middle Ages between years 1121–1160, 1264–1295, 1478–1531, and 1625–1637.
The duchy originated from the realm ofWartislaw I, aSlavic Pomeranian duke, and was extended by theLands of Schlawe and Stolp in 1317, thePrincipality of Rügen in 1325, and theLauenburg and Bütow Land in 1455. During theHigh Middle Ages, it also comprised the northernNeumark andUckermark areas as well asCircipania andMecklenburg-Strelitz.
The Duchy of Pomerania was established as avassal state ofPoland in 1121, which it remained until thefragmentation of Poland after the death of Polish rulerBolesław III Wrymouth in 1138. Afterwards theDukes of Pomerania were independent, and later were vassals of theDuchy of Saxony from 1164 to 1181, of theHoly Roman Empire from 1181 to 1185, ofDenmark from 1185 to 1227 and finally, from 1227 on, staying with theHoly Roman Empire (including periods of vassalage to theMargraves of Brandenburg).
Most of the time, the duchy was ruled by severalGriffin dukes in common, resulting in variousinternal partitions. After thelast Griffin duke had died during theThirty Years' War in 1637, the duchy was partitioned betweenBrandenburg-Prussia andSweden. The Kings of Sweden and the Margraves of Brandenburg, later Kings of Prussia, became members as Dukes of Pomerania in theList of Reichstag participants.
In the 12th century, Poland, the Holy Roman Empire'sDuchy of Saxony and Denmark variously conquered Pomerania, endingthe tribal era.[1]
TheSłupsk andSławno areas were ruled byRatibor I and his descendants (Ratiboriden branch of the GriffinHouse of Pomerania) until the Danish occupation and extinction of the Ratiboride branch in 1227.
The areas stretching fromKołobrzeg toSzczecin were ruled by Ratibor's brotherWartislaw I and his descendants (House of Pomerania, also called Griffins, of which he was the first ascertained ancestor) until the 1630s.[1] The terms of surrender after the Polish conquest were that Wartislaw had to accept Polish sovereignty, convert his people to Christianity, and pay an annual tribute to the Polish duke.
In several expeditions mounted between 1102 and 1121, most of Pomerania had been conquered by the Polish dukeBolesław III Wrymouth.[2]
From 1102 to 1109, Boleslaw campaigned in theNoteć andParsęta area.[3] The Pomeranian residence inBiałogard was taken already in 1102.[2] From 1112 to 1116, Boleslaw subdued all ofPomerelia.[3] From 1119 to 1122, the area towards theOder were subdued.[3]Szczecin was taken in the winter of 1121–1122.[3]
The conquest resulted in a high death toll and devastation of vast areas of Pomerania, and the Pomeranian dukes were forced to become vassals of Boleslaw III, King of Poland.[4][5][6]
Poland's influence vanished in the next decade.[7] In 1135, Bolesław had accepted overlordship ofHoly Roman EmperorLothair III and in turn received his Pomeranian gains as well as the still undefeatedPrincipality of Rügen as a fief.[8][9] Wartislaw I also accepted the Emperor as his overlord.[9] With Bolesław's death in 1138 and the fragmentation of Poland, Polish overlordship ended,[10] triggering competition of theHoly Roman Empire and Denmark for the area.[9]
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In the meantime, Wartislaw managed to conquer vast territories west of theOder river, an area inhabited byLutici tribes weakened by past warfare, and included these territories into hisDuchy of Pomerania. Already in 1120, he had expanded west into the areas near theOder Lagoon andPeene river. Most notablyDemmin, thePrincipality of Gützkow andWolgast were conquered in the following years.[7]
The major stage of the westward expansion into Lutici territory occurred between Otto of Bamberg's two missions, 1124 and 1128. In 1128, Demmin, the County of Gützkow and Wolgast were already incorporated into Wartislaw I's realm, yet warfare was still going on.[11] Captured Lutici and other war loot, including livestock, money, and clothes were apportioned among the victorious.[12] After Wartislaw's Lutician conquests, his duchy lay between theBay of Greifswald to the north,Circipania, includingGüstrow (Ostrów), to the west, Kolobrzeg in the east, and possibly as far as theHavel andSpree rivers in the south.[13]
These gains were not subject to Polish over lordship,[9][14] but were placed under over lordship ofNordmarkmargraveAlbrecht the Bear, who, according to Polish sources, was a dedicated enemy of Slavs,[15] byLothair III, Holy Roman Emperor.[9][clarification needed] Thus, the western territories contributed to making Wartislaw significantly independent from the Polish dukes.[16] Wartislaw was not the only one campaigning in these areas. The Polish Duke Boleslaw III, during his Pomeranian campaign launched an expedition into theMüritz area in 1120–21,[17] before he turned back to subdue Wartislaw. The laterHoly Roman Emperor Lothair III (thenSaxon duke Lothair I of Supplinburg) in 1114 initiated massive campaigns against the local Lutici tribes resulting in their final defeat in 1228.[17][clarification needed] Also, the territories were invaded by Danish forces multiple times, who, coming from theBaltic Sea, used the rivers Peene andUecker to advance to a lineDemmin–Pasewalk.[14] At different times, Pomeranians, Saxons and Danes were either allies or opponents.[14] ThePomeranian dukes consolidated their power in the course of the 12th century, yet the preceding warfare had left these territories completely devastated.[8]
A first attempt to convert the Pomeranians was made following the subjugation of Pomerania byBoleslaw III of Poland. In 1122,Spanish monkBernard (also Bernhard) travelled to Jumne (Wolin), accompanied only by his chaplain and an interpreter. The Pomeranians however were not impressed by his missionary efforts and finally threw him out of town.[5][18]
Bernard was later made the firstbishop of Lubusz in Poland.[5]
After Bernard's misfortune, Boleslaw III askedOtto of Bamberg[19] to convert Pomerania toChristianity, which he accomplished in his first visit in 1124–25.[20] Otto's strategy severely differed from the one Bernard used: While Bernard travelled alone and as a poor and unknown priest, Otto, a wealthy and famous man, was accompanied by 20 clergy of his own diocese, numerous servants, 60 warriors supplied to him by Boleslaw, and carried with him numerous supplies and gifts. After arriving inPyrzyce, the Pomeranians were assured that Otto's aim was not the gain of wealth at the expense of the Pomeranian people, as he was wealthy already, but only to convert them to Christianity, which would protect the Pomeranians from further punishment by God, as which the devastating Polish conquest was depicted. This approach turned out to be successful, and was backed by parts of the Pomeranian nobility that in part was Christian raised already, like dukeWartislaw I, who encouraged and promoted Otto's mission. Many Pomeranians were baptized already in Pyrzyce and also in the other burghs visited.[5][21][22][23]
Otto of Bamberg returned in 1128,[22] this time invited by dukeWartislaw I himself, aided by the emperorHoly Roman Emperor Lothar II, to convert the (Lutician) Slavs ofWestern Pomerania just incorporated into the Pomeranian duchy, and to strengthen the Christian faith of the inhabitants of Stettin and Wollin, who fell back intoheathen practices and idolatry.[23] Otto this time visited primarilyWestern Pomeranian burghs, had the temples ofGützkow andWolgast torn down and on their sites erected the predecessors of today'sSt Nikolai andSt Petri churches, respectively. The nobility assembled to a congress inUsedom, where they accepted Christianity on 10 June 1128.[20][23][24] Otto then was titledapostolus gentis Pomeranorum, made asaint by popeClement III in 1189, and was worshipped in Pomerania even after theProtestant Reformation.[25]
In 1140, one year after Otto of Bamberg's death, aPomeranian diocese was founded and placed directly under theHoly See.[26][27]Adalbert of Pomerania, who had participated in Otto's mission as an interpreter and assistant, was made the first bishop.[26][28] The direct subordination under the pope thwarted the claims of the archbishops ofMagdeburg andGniezno, who both had asserted pressure on Otto of Bamberg to incorporate the new diocese into their realms.[26] The initial see of the Pomeranian diocese wasWolin, and was moved toGrobe Abbey on the island ofUsedom and toKammin (Cammin, now Kamien Pomorski) after 1150 and 1175, respectively.[29] Since 1188, when the pope accepted the move of the see, the bishopric was referred to asRoman Catholic Diocese of Kammin, while before it was addressed as Pomeranian diocese.[30]
In 1248, theKammin bishops and thePomeranian dukes had interchanged theterraeStargard and Kolberg, leaving the bishops in charge of the latter.[31] In the following, the bishops extended their secular reign, which soon comprised theKolberg (now Kołobrzeg),Köslin (also Cöslin, now Koszalin) andBublitz (now Bobolice) areas.[32] When in 1276 they became the sovereign of the town of Kolberg also, they moved their residence there, while the administration of the diocese was done from nearby Köslin.[31] The bishops at multiple occasions tried to exclude their secular reign from ducal overlordship by applying forImperial immediacy (Reichsunmittelbarkeit).[32] ThePomeranian dukes successfully forestalled these ambitions,[32] and immediacy was granted only temporarily in 1345.[31]
In the West, bishops and dukes of theHoly Roman Empire mounted expeditions to Pomerania. Most notable for the further fate of Pomerania are the 1147Wendish Crusade and the 1164Battle of Verchen, the Pomeranian dukes became vassals ofHenry the Lion,of Saxony. Despite this vassalage, Henry again sieged Demmin in 1177 when he allied with the Danes, but reconciled with the Pomeranian dukes thereafter.[33] In 1181 the dukes took their duchy as a fief from theHoly Roman EmperorBarbarossa.[34][35][36]Bogislaw I, Duke of Pomerania had travelled to Barbarossa's camp inLübeck, where he received theImperial flag and the title "Duke of Slavinia".[36]
From the North, Denmark attacked Pomerania. Several campaigns throughout the 12th century (in 1136, 1150, 1159 and throughout the 1160s) culminated in the defeat of thePrincipality of Rugia in 1168.[37] The Rugian princes became vassals ofValdemar I of Denmark. In the fall of 1170, the Danes raided theOder estuary. In 1171, the Danes raidedCircipania and took Cotimar's burgh inBehren-Lübchin. In 1173, the Danes turned to theOder Lagoon again, taking the burgh ofSzczecin.Wartislaw II Swantiboriz, castellan of Stettin, became a Danish vassal. In 1177, the Danes again raided the Oder Lagoon area, also the burgh ofWolgast in 1178. In 1184 and 1185, three campaigns of the Danes resulted in makingBogislaw I, Duke of Pomerania a Danish vassal.[35] These campaigns were mounted by Valdemar's son and successor for the Danish throne,Canute VI of Denmark. In the Duchy of Pomerania the Danish period lasted untilValdemar II of Denmark lost theBattle of Bornhöved on 22 July 1227.[35] Danish supremacy prevailed until 1325[37] in the Rugian principality.[38]
At that time, the duchy was also referred to asSlavinia (German:Slawien), a term also applied to severalWendish areas such asMecklenburg and the Principality of Rügen.[39]
Starting in the 12th century, Pomerania was settled with Germans in a process termedOstsiedlung, that affected all medieval EastCentral andEastern Europe. Except for the PomerelianKashubians and theSlovincians, theWends were assimilated. Most towns and villages date back to this period.
Before the Ostsiedlung, Pomerania was rather sparsely settled. Around 1200, a relatively dense population could be found on the islands ofRügen,Usedom andWolin, around the burghs ofSzczecin,Koszalin,Pyrzyce andStargard, around theParsęta river (Kołobrzeg area), the lowerPeene river, and betweenSławno and theLeba valley. Largely unsettled were the hilly regions and the woods in the South. The 12th century warfare, especially the Danish raids, depopulated many areas of Pomerania and caused severe population drops in others (e.g. Usedom). At the turn to the 13th century, only isolated German settlements existed, e.g.Hohenkrug (Struga) and other German villages, and the merchant's settlement near the Szczecin burgh. In contrast, the monasteries were almost exclusively run by Germans and Danes.[40]
Massive German settlement started in the first half of the 13th century. Ostsiedlung was a common process at this time in all Central Europe and was largely run by the nobles and monasteries to increase their income. Also, the settlers were expected to finish and secure the conversion of the non-nobles to Christianity. In addition, the Danes withdrew from most of Pomerania in 1227, leaving the duchy vulnerable to their expansive neighbors, especiallyMecklenburg,Brandenburg, andHenry I of Silesia.[41]
Germans, at this early stage (before 1240), were often settled in frontier regions, such as the mainland part of thePrincipality of Rugia (afterprince Jaromar I grantedEldena Abbey the right to call in settlers in 1209),Circipania, the lands ofLoitz (administered semi-independently by Detlev of Gadebush), theUckermark, the lands ofKołbacz Abbey andBahn (Banie) (which later was granted to the Knights Templar), and the area north of theWarta and along the lowerOder river. However, in many of these frontiers, German settlement did not hinder the advance of Pomerania's neighbors.[41]
Germans were placed under a different law than Slavs. While those were unfree (except for the nobles), did not own the soil they cultivated, and were to serve the nobility, the opposite was true for the Germans.[42][43]
About 1240, the areas ofStavenhagen andPyrzyce (Pyritz) were subject to German settlement. About 1250, massive settlement took place also in Central Western Pomerania (County of Gützkow, lands ofMeseritz,Ploth,Ziethen andGroswin), and theStargard area (where settlement was encouraged already since 1229). In the 1260s, settlement started in theKamień (Cammin) area, and in the virtually unpopulated lands ofNowogard (Naugard),Massow andDobra (Daber). TheUeckermünde and theOder mouth areas were also settled at about 1260, but theUeckermünde heath and the woodlands on both sides of theOder Lagoon remained untouched. In the areas adjacent to thePeenestrom (the lands ofWusterhusen andLassan) local Slavs participated in the German settlement, which started in the 1260s. Settlement of the areas centered on the upperRega river, previously unsettled, started in the 1250s, and reached a peak in the 1280s. The lower Rega area aroundGreifenberg in Pommern (Gryfice) andTreptow an der Rega (Trzebiatów) was settled about the same period, but here a native Slavic population participated. In thePersante (Parsęta) area, first German settlements occurred about 1260, but a more extensive settlement did not start before 1280. On the islands ofUsedom andWolin, only isolated settlements took place in the 13th century, e.g. in theGarz (Usedom) andCaseburg (Karsibór) area, where Germans settled already in the 1240s, and in proximity of the German town ofWolin. The localGrobe Abbey did, in contrast to the other Pomeranian monasteries, not enhance German settlement. Therefore, Slavic culture on the isles persisted and vanished only in the late 14th century. The island ofRügen, in contrast to the meanwhile German mainland parts of the principality, also remained a Slavic character throughout the 13th century – German settlement would only start in the 14th century, with strong participation of local Slavs. InSławno andSłupsk (Schlawe andStolp), German settlement started in the 1260s, and was promoted by theBelbuck Abbey. A large influx of settlers to the western parts of Schlawe-Stolp took place after 1270, first settlers were called to the Stolp area in the 1280s. Here, local Slavs participated in the Ostsiedlung, and settlement went on throughout the 14th century.[44]
Initially, the Germans who settled the northern regions predominantly came fromLower Saxony, while the Germans who settled the southern areas (mittelpommerscher Keil) predominantly came fromAltmark andWestphalia. This caused the emergence ofEast Pomeranian,Central Pomeranian andMecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialects. German settlers also came from areas earlier affected from Ostsiedlung, such asMecklenburg,Brandenburg, and later also German settled regions ofPomerania herself. Though the exact proportion of German versus Slavic populations cannot be determined, it is undisputed that the Germans significantly outnumbered the Slavs. Before the end of the 13th century, theWestern Pomeranian mainland and most ofFarther Pomerania west of theGollenberg had turned almost completely German, mentions of Slavs in documents became exceptional. The Slavic dialects disappeared, with the exception that fishermen from the isles and the Oder lagoon area continued to use Wendish for a relatively long period.[45]
Villages before the Ostsiedlung were of theHaufendorf type, the houses were built in close proximity to each other without a special ruling. A variant of this type also found in Pomerania is theSackgassendorf (orSackdorf) type, where a dead end road leads to those houses. This type evolved as an extension ofHaufendorf type villages. German settlement introduced new types of villages: In theHagenhufendorf type, houses were built on both sides of a main road, each within their ownhide (German:Hagen). Those villages were usually set up after the clearance of woodlands, most of them were given German names in absence of any Slavic site names. This type of village can be found all along the coast, most of them in the areas betweenBarth andWolgast,Kolberg (Kołobrzeg) andKöslin (Koszalin), and north and west ofSchlawe (Sławno). Other villages were built in theAngerdorf type, where a main street fork encloses a large meadow ("Anger") in the village's center where the life stock was kept at night, sometimes the church or other buildings not used for living were built on the Anger also. This type is the most prominent type in thePeene, lowerOder,Pyrzyce,Lake Madü andRega areas, many villages of this type are also found in theKolberg andSchlawe area. In addition to these types, theStraßendorf type, characterized by a single and very long main street, was introduced in a later stage of Ostsiedlung, and therefore is found predominantly in areas that were affected last by the German settlement (easternmost parts, Cammin area). Villages of this type were either new foundations, or extensions of Slavic precursors. In other areas, Hagenhufendorf and Angerdorf types dominate, while theHaufendorf type used in Slavic times and its Sackdorf variant can still be found in between, predominantly on the islands.[46][47]
The villages' area was divided inhides. The size of a hide differed between the village types: AHagenhufe, used in the Hagenhufendorf villages, comprised 60Morgen (Latin:iugera), about 40hectares. ALandhufe, used in the Angerdorf villages, comprised 30 Morgen. One farm would usually have an area of one Hagenhufe or two Landhufen. Slavic farmland was measured in Haken (Latin:uncus), with one Haken equals 15 Morgen (half a Landhufe). Haken were used only in villages remaining under old Slavic law (predominantly on the islands), whereas Hufen were used for new villages placed under German law (in Pomerania sometimes referred to asSchwerin Law). Not all families of German villages owned a Hufe. Those dwelling on considerably smaller property ("gardens") were usually hired as workers by the farmers (German:Vollbauern). These people were termed "gardeners" (German:Gärtner) orKossäten (literally "who sits in a hut"), and could either be local Slavs or the younger sons of German farmers who did not inherit their father's soil.[47][48]
Nearly all towns in modern Pomerania date back to the Ostsiedlung. In Slavic times, there have been town-like settlements already inDemmin,Wolgast,Usedom,Wolin,Szczecin,Kołobrzeg,Pyrzyce andStargard, although many of the coastal settlements declined during the 12th century warfare.[49] Yet these settlements were not continued by the German towns, which were founded on previously unsettled soil. Although some towns had a Slavic settlement, sometimes attached to aburgh, as precursor, the name of which would be adopted for the German town, the new town was usually founded on empty space in the settlements neighborhood.[50] The distance could be some kilometers as in the case ofKolberg. Exceptions areWollin and probablyCammin, which were built on the spot of former, yet decayed settlements, andStettin, where two German settlements were set up close to the Slavic burgh and settlement, all of which were included in the later town. In many cases, the name of the neighboring Slavic settlement would be used for the new town.[51]
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The towns were built on behalf of the Pomeranian dukes or ecclesial bodies like monasteries and orders.[23] Most prominent on this issue wasBarnim I of Pomerania-Stettin (Szczecin), who since was entitled "the towns' founder". The towns build on his behalf were grantedMagdeburg Law and settled predominantly by people from the westernMargraviate of Brandenburg, while the towns founded in the North (most on behalf of theRugian princes andWartislaw III of Pomerania-Demmin were grantedLübeck Law and were settled predominantly by people fromLower Saxony. The first towns wereStralsund (Principality of Rügen, 1234),Prenzlau (Uckermark, then Pomerania-Stettin, 1234),Bahn (Knights Templar, about 1234), andStettin (1237–43),Gartz (Oder) (Pomerania-Stettin, 1240), andLoitz (byDetlev of Gadebusch, 1242). Other towns built in the 1240s wereDemmin,Greifswald (byEldena Abbey),Altentreptow.[52]
In the 1250s followedAnklam,Altdamm (Dąbie),Pyritz (Pyrzyce), probably alreadyStargard andGrimmen,Greifenhagen,Barth (Principality of Rügen, before 1255), andDamgarten (Principality of Rügen, 1258). In the 1260s followedWollin (1260),Ueckermünde,Wolgast, probably alreadyGützkow,Pölitz (1260),Greifenberg (1262),Gollnow, probably alreadyUsedom,Penkun,Tribsees (Principality of Rügen, before 1267) andNaugard (by thebishop of Cammin, before 1268). In the 1270s followedCammin (1274),Massow (by the bishop of Cammin, 1274),Pasewalk (recorded in 1274, founded probably in the 1250s),Plathe (1277),Lassan (between 1264 and 1278),Rügenwalde (by Vitslav II of Rügen),Regenwalde (1279–80),Labes (about 1280), andTreptow an der Rega (between 1277 and 1281).Neuwarp,Richtenberg,Belgard, andWerben (by the bishop of Cammin) are first recorded in 1295, 1297, 1299, and 1300, respectively, all were most certainly founded earlier.[52]
In the area directly administered by the bishops of Cammin, the towns ofKolberg (1255),Köslin (1266),Körlin (early 14th century), andBublitz (1340) were set up. The early 14th century saw the foundation ofStolp (byWaldemar of Brandenburg, 1310),Neustettin (by Wartislaw IV, 1310),Rügenwalde (again 1312, the 1270s precursor had not done well),Rugendal (Principality of Rügen, before 1313, decayed),Schlawe (by theSwenzones, 1317),Garz (by the princes of Rügen, 1320s),Jacobshagen (by three brothersvon Stegelitz, 1336),Freienwalde (byvon Wedel, before 1338),Zanow (by the Swenzones, 1343),Lauenburg (by theTeutonic Knights, 1341),Bütow (by the Teutonic Knights, 1346), andFiddichow (by Barnim III, 1347).[52]
Many towns with a burgh in close proximity had the duke level this burgh when they grew in power. Stettin, where the burgh was inside the town, had the duke level his burgh already in 1249,[50] other towns were to follow. The fortified new towns had succeeded the burghs as strongholds for the country's defense. In many cases, the former burgh settlement would become a Slavic suburb of the German town ("Wiek", "Wieck"). In Stettin, two "Wiek" suburbs were set up anew outside the walls, to which most Slavs from within the walls were resettled. Such Wiek settlements did initially not belong to the town, but to the duke, although they were likely to come into possession of the town in the course of the 14th century. Also in the 14th century, Slavic Wiek suburbs lost their Slavic character.[53]
Indigenous Slavs faced discrimination from the arriving Germans, who on a local level since the 16th century[clarification needed] imposed discriminatory regulations, such as bans on buying goods from Slavs or prohibiting them from becoming members of craft guilds.[54]
The towns of Pomerania that had joined theHanseatic League acted independently from the duchy, and sometimes opposed the dukes' interest.[55] The most powerful towns wereStralsund,Greifswald, andStettin (Szczecin), but alsoDemmin,Anklam andKolberg (Kołobrzeg). Before theTreaty of Stralsund in 1370, and during the reign ofEric of Pomerania, the Hanseatic towns were in a state of war with Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic Sea.[56]
Parts of the Pomeranian nobility were engaged inpiracy against Hanseatic vessels. Barnim VI of Pomerania-Wolgast did not only engage in piracy himself, he is also known for providing refuge and hideouts for theLikedeeler pirate organisation.[57]
The relation between the towns and the nobility throughout the Middle Ages ranged from alliances and support (German:Landfrieden) to cabalism, banditry and outright warfare.[55][58]
In 1155, the duchy was partitioned in Pomerania-Demmin and Pomerania-Stettin (Szczecin).[13] With short interruptions, this division lasted until 1264.[59]
Wartislaw I was murdered between 1134 and 1148 inStolpe.[13] His brother,Ratibor Iof Schlawe-Stolp, foundedStolpe Abbey near this site and ruled Wartislaw's realm in place of his minor nephews,Bogislaw I andCasimir I.[13] Ratibor died in 1155, and Wartislaw's sons agreed to co-rule the duchy from their residencesDemmin (Casimir) andStettin (Bogislaw).[13] Except for the terraKołobrzeg, which was ruled as a co-dominion, they partitioned the duchy with Pomerania-Demmin comprising the upperPeene,Tollense,Dievenow (Dziwnów) andRega areas, and Pomerania-Stettin comprising theOder,Ina and lowerPeene areas.[60] When Casimir I died in 1180, Bogislaw became the sole duke.[60] Bogislaw I took his duchy as a fief from theHoly Roman EmperorFrederick I (Barbarossa) in 1181, and from theDanish kingCanute VI in 1185.[60]
When he died in 1187, his two sonsCasimir II andBogislaw II were still minors, andStettincastellan Wartislaw (II) ruled in their place.[60] Danish pressure resulted in Wartislaw's replacement byRugian princeJaromar I,[60] a Danish vassal, in 1189. ThePrincipality of Rügen was extended southward on the expense of Pomerania-Demmin. When Casimir II and Bogislaw II died in 1219 and 1220, respectively,[60] their respective sonsWartislaw III (Pomerania-Demmin) andBarnim I (Pomerania-Stettin) were still minors. Wartislaw's motherIngardis of Denmark thus ruled until Wartislaw was able to rule Pomerania-Demmin on his own in 1225, and Barnim, in theory duke since 1220, practically started his reign in Pomerania-Stettin only in 1233.[61] Pomerania-Demmin lost her southern and western areas to Brandenburg, and the remainder came under Barnim's rule after Wartislaw died in 1264.[59]
During the reign ofOtto I, Margrave of Brandenburg and son ofAlbert I of Brandenburg (1100–1170), Brandenburg claimedsovereignty over Pomerania. Yet, in 1181,Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I invested DukeBogislaw I of the GriffinHouse of Pomerania with the Duchy ofSlavia (Pomerania). This was not accepted by theMargraviate of Brandenburg and triggered several military conflicts.
Between 1185 and 1227, Pomerania along with most of the southern Baltic coast remained under sovereignty of Denmark. However, Brandenburg again tried to gain sovereignty over Pomerania, and in 1214 for a short time conqueredStettin (Szczecin).[62] After Denmark lost theBattle of Bornhöved in 1227, Denmark lost all her territories on the southern Baltic shore, including Pomerania.[36]
At this time, theDuchy of Pomerania was co-ruled by dukeWartislaw III of Demmin and dukeBarnim I of Stettin (Szczecin). After the Danes retreated, Brandenburg took her chance and invaded Pomerania-Demmin. In 1231,Holy Roman EmperorFrederick II gave the duchy, which then was again a part of the empire, as a fief to theAscanian margraves of Brandenburg.[63][64]
Denmark also attempted to restore her rule and tookWolgast andDemmin in 1235, but was driven out the same year.[65] Wartislaw had to accept Brandenburg's overlordship in the 1236Treaty of Kremmen, furthermore he had to hand over most of his duchy to Brandenburg immediately, that was theBurg Stargard Land and adjacent areas (all soon to become a part ofMecklenburg, forming the bulk of the laterMecklenburg-Strelitz area).Circipania was already lost to Mecklenburg in the years before.
In the 1250Treaty of Landin between Pomeranian dukes and margraves of Brandenburg, Barnim I managed to reassert the rule of his Griffin house over Pomerania, but lost theUckermark to Brandenburg.
Brandenburg since 1250 expanded eastward. In 1250–52, the margraves gained half ofLubusz Land, including the terraKüstrin (Kostrzyn) between Warta andMietzel (Myśla), and the terraChinz north of the Mietzel river, both previously held by Barnim. In the course of the 1250s, the margraves further gained thecastellaniesSantok andDrezdenko except for the burghs itself, of both castellanies actually belonging toGreater Poland, Barnim had held the northern parts. In 1261, Barnim lost theSoldin (Myślibórz) area, and in the following years the terraZehden (Cedynia) to Brandenburg.[66]
In 1264, DukeWartislaw III of Demmin died, his cousin Barnim I (the Good) became the sole ruler of the duchy. In 1266, Barnim I married Mechthild, the daughter ofOtto III, Margrave of Brandenburg.
In 1269, Barnim lost the terraArnswalde (Choszczno) to the margraves. Before his death, he bought the western part back in 1278.[67]
Bogislaw IV lost theBernstein (Pełczyce) area andZinnenburg Land (terra Arnhausen and terraSchivelbein), in 1280. All former Pomeranian territories east of the Oder lost to Brandenburg in the 13th century became parts of the BrandenburgianNeumark ("new march").[67]
In 1234 and 1241,Silesian dukesHenry I andHenry II expanded their realm to the North, and even took control of areas north of theWarta river previously held by the Dukes of Pomerania.[68] TheGriffin dukes,Silesian Piasts,Dukes of Greater Poland, thebishops of Lebus and thebishops of Kammin all competed for the Warta/Noteć area, centered around the burgh ofSantok. Until 1250,Barnim I, Duke of Pomerania had recovered most of the previous Pomeranian territory[68] and sought to secure them with the settlement of Germans, while Zantoch burgh was held byPrzemysł II of Greater Poland.[66]
The last member of theRatiborides branch of the Griffins,Ratibor II, died in 1223.[69] This led to a competition between the Griffins and the PomerelianSamborides for inheritance of Schlawe-Stolp.[69] Because Ratibor died during the Danish period, Denmark administered the area until she had to withdraw after the lostBattle of Bornhöved in 1227.[69]Barnim I, Duke of Pomerania, took control of the lands immediately after the Danish withdrawal, but had to yield Pomerelian dukeSwietopelk's rights, whose relationship to the Ratiborides was closer.[69] Swietopelk took over Schlawe-Stolp in 1235–36.[69] The Griffins mounted an unsuccessful campaigns to gain the area in 1236–38,[70] 1253,[69][70] 1259,[69][70] and 1266.[70] After the death ofŚwiętopełk II in 1266, Barnim I took over the area and kept it until 1269, whenRugian princeVitslav II took over.[69] He withdrew in 1277 and left the area to Brandenburg.[69] In 1283,Mestwin II of Pomerelia took over.[69] Competition arose anew after his death in 1294.[69] In 1296, Vitslav's son Sambor launched another campaign.[70]
Thelast duke of Demmin had died in 1264, and the 1236 territorial losses left Demmin at the westernmost edge of the Duchy of Pomerania.
WhenBarmin I, for a short period sole ruler of the duchy, died in 1278, his oldest sonBogislaw IV took his father's seat. When his half-brothersOtto I andBarnim II reached adulthood in 1294, the brothers ruled in common until Barnim's death in 1295. Bogislaw and Otto now agreed on a partition of the duchy, that would last until 1464: Bogislaw's share was the area where the towns were underLübeck law, that wasVorpommern north of thePeene river (though includingAnklam andDemmin on its southern bank) andFarther Pomerania north of theIhna (Ina) andStepenitz rivers, both areas were connected by the islands ofUsedom andWollin. Bogislaw madeWolgast his residence, thus the partition became known as Pomerania-Wolgast. Otto's share was the remainder betweenPeene andIhna (Ina) centered aroundStettin (Szczecin), where the towns were underMagdeburg law. This partition became known as Pomerania-Stettin.[71]
A series of wars was triggered by Denmark in the early 14th century, whenEric VI Menved attempted to reestablish Danish rule in Northern Germany. Pomeranian and Rugian towns and dukes were involved in these wars in various and often opposing coalitions. Since 1314, a coalition consisting mainly ofWaldemar of Brandenburg,Stralsund, and the Pomeranian dukes opposed a Danish-led coalition joined by Rugian dukeVitslav III. This war was ended by theTreaty of Templin in 1317. During this conflict, in 1315,Wartislaw IV of Pomerania-Wolgast, grandson of Rugian Vitslav II, made an agreement with Eric VI Menved's brotherChristopher II of Denmark for inheritance of thePrincipality of Rügen.[72]
Waldemar of Brandenburg died in 1319. Heinrich, his heir, was still a minor, and died in 1320.[73] The Pomeranian dukes and Cammin bishops tried to take advance of Brandenburg's weakness.[73] They did not only envision territorial gains, but also aimed at changing the status of the duchy from a fief of Brandenburg to a fief directly from the emperor.[73] To achieve these goals, the dukes allied with various neighboring states, mounted military campaigns of which the firstBattle of Kremmer Damm in 1332 was the most important, and gave their lands to the Cammin bishops (in 1320)[74] and even topope John XXII (in 1330[73][74] or 1331).[75] In 1337, the Brandenburg margrave had to take the terraeLippehne (Lipiany),Schivelbein (Świdwin) andFalkenburg (Złocieniec) (all inNeumark) as a fief from the Cammin (Kamień) bishops.[73] In 1338,Barnim III of Pomerania-Stettin (Szczecin) was granted his part-duchy as a fief directly from the emperor, while Pomerania-Wolgast remained under formal Brandenburgian overlordship.[73][75]
The townsStettin (Szczecin),Greifenhagen (Gryfino), andGollnow (Goleniów) in Pomerania-Stettin, concerned about a permanent division of the duchy in case Barnim III would not have children, rebelled in 1339 and sided with Pomerania-Wolgast in 1341.[76][77] Barnim had to move his court toGartz (Oder).[76] On 12 June 1348 German king and later emperorCharles IV granted the Duchy of Pomerania as a whole and the Rugian principality as a fief to the dukes of both Pomerania-Stettin and Pomerania-Wolgast, erasing Brandenburg's claims,[75][76] which however was not accepted by Brandenburg until 1529.[75] The Pomeranian dukes and towns reconciled in 1344–54.[76]
Barnim III, against the will of the burghers, erected acastle within Stettin's walls in 1346 (the old burgh had been leveled in 1249),[78] and gained from Brandenburg the eastern parts of theUckermark, that was in 1354Pasewalk, in 1355Schwedt,Angermünde, andBrüssow, and in 1359 (Torgelow).[76]
In 1316–17, theGriffin duke of Pomerania-Wolgast took over these areas as a fief fromWaldemar of Brandenburg. In 1347, the area became fully attached to Pomerania-Wolgast.[79] The lands of Stolp were pawned to the Teutonic Order from 1329 to 1341, theBütow area was bought by the Knights in 1329 and thus remained outside Pomerania-Wolgast.[80]
The Rugian Prince Vitslav III died in 1325. Because of the earlier death of his son, he had no male heir, andWartislaw IV of Pomerania-Wolgast took over the principality according to the 1315 agreement withChristopher II of Denmark. Yet, in the meantime Christopher's throne had been challenged byValdemar III of Denmark, and Christopher had granted Rugia to Mecklenburg for her aid against his opponent. After Wartislaw died in 1326, Mecklenburg invaded the principality, triggering the First War for Rugian Succession (German:Erster Rügenscher Erbfolgekrieg). Wartislaw's minor sons were aided by primarily byGreifswald andDemmin, but also byStralsund,Anklam, and Valdemar III, who decisively defeated the Mecklenburgian army in 1228 nearVölschow. In the subsequentTreaty of Brudersdorf, Mecklenburg withdrew her claims for 31,000mark in silver. In exchange, the terraeTribsees,Grimmen andBarth were pawned to her. When the Pomeranian dukes in 1340 were not able to bail out these lands, but refused to formally hand them over, the Second War for Rugian Succession (German:Zweiter Rügenscher Erbfolgekrieg). This time, the dukes of Pomerania-Wolgast were aided by those of Pomerania-Stettin and theCounts of Gützkow. After the Pomeranian forces defeated the Mecklenburgians in theBattle of Schopendamm nearLoitz in 1351, they were able to take Grimmen and Barth in 1354 and Tribsees in 1356. Mecklenburg dropped her claims thereafter. Another party in these wars for Rugian succession was the bishop of Schwerin, who sought to enforce his claims by legal means, but was not successful in his appeals to various ecclesial courts.[81]
After the death ofBarnim IV of Pomerania-Wolgast in 1366, an armed conflict arose when Barnim's brotherBogislaw V refused to share his power with Barnim's sons,Wartislaw VI andBogislaw VI, and his other brother,Wartislaw V, who in turn allied with Mecklenburg to enforce their claims. On 25 May 1368 a compromise was negotiated inAnklam,[82] which was made a formal treaty on 8 June 1372 inStargard,[83] and resulted in a partition of Pomerania-Wolgast.[84]
Bogislaw V received most of theFarther Pomeranian parts. Excepted was the land ofNeustettin (Szczecinek), which was to be ruled by his brother Wartislaw V, and was integrated into Bogislaw's part-duchy only after his death in 1390. This eastern part duchy became known asPomerania-Stolp (Słupsk).[82][83][84]
The western remainder of Pomerania-Wolgast was further partitioned between Bogislaw IV and Wartislaw VI on 6 December 1376. Wartislaw VI received Pomerania-(Wolgast)-Barth, the former principality of Rügen, and Bogislaw IV's Pomerania-Wolgast was reduced to an area betweenGreifswald and theŚwina river. When Bogislaw VI died in 1393 and Wartislaw VI in 1394, the latter's sonsBarnim VI andWartislaw VIII ruled in common.[82][83][84]
On 6 December 1425 the western part of Pomerania-Wolgast (without Pomerania-Stolp) was partitioned again at a congress inEldena Abbey, this time among theWartislaw IX and his brotherBarnim VII, who received the eastern part withWolgast, and their cousinsSwantibor II and his brotherBarnim VIII, who received the Rugian part withBarth.[85]
In 1456, theUniversity of Greifswald was founded on behalf of Greifswald'sburgomasterHeinrich Rubenow, becoming the first university of Pomerania and one of the oldest in northern Europe.[86]
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The situation of the descendants of Bogislaw V, who ruled Pomerania-Stolp, differed somewhat from the situation of their western counterparts. The area was more sparsely settled and dominated by powerful noble families, so not much income could be derived by the dukes. On the other hand, the Stolpian branch of the House of Pomerania had relatives among the royal houses of Denmark and Poland.Casimir IV and Elisabeth, the children of Bogislaw V and his first wife Elisabeth, the daughter ofCasimir III of Poland, where both raised at the Polish court inKraków.Elisabeth would become Holy Roman Empress after her marriage withCharles IV, and Casimir was adopted by and designated heir of his grandfather. Yet, his ambitions were swarted[check spelling] whenLudwig of Hungary overruled the testament of Casimir of Poland in 1370, Casimir of Pomerania-Stolp only for a short time took the land ofDobrin (Dobrzyń) as a fief.Eric II of Pomerania-Stolp, grand-grandchild of Danish kingValdemar IV in contrast became king of theKalmar Union in 1397.[87]
Eric however failed in his most ambitious plan, to makeBogislaw IX of Pomerania-Stolp king of both the Kalmar Union and thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Eric had to leave Denmark in 1449 and ruled Pomerania-Rügenwalde, a small partition of Pomerania-Stolp, until his death in 1459.[88]
Pomerania-Stolp was a crucial point in the Knights' land supply route.Bogislaw VIII of Pomerania-Stolp allied with both the Teutonic Knights and Poland, but supported the latter after the war had started in 1409 by blocking his lands for the Knights' troops and allowing his nobles to kidnap those who were travelling his lands. For his aid, he was granted the Lauenburg (nowLębork) and Bütow (nowBytów) areas (Lauenburg and Bütow Land) and others, but those were lost in theFirst Peace of Thorn in 1411.[89]
Casimir V of Pomerania-Stettin at the same time allied with the Teutonic Knights and took part in theBattle of Grunwald, where he was caught by the Poles and bailed out by the Knights after theFirst Peace of Thorn.[90]
The main concern of the Stettin dukes however was Brandenburg, namely the Neumark and Uckermark regions.Casimir III died in 1372 during a siege ofKönigsberg (Neumark) (Chojna), after he had managed to receive an Imperial approval of his Uckermark possessions in 1370. On 17 May 1373 all dukes of Pomerania concluded an alliance inKaseburg, but situation eased whenOtto VII, Margrave-elector of Brandenburg abdicated on 15 August 1373, and theHouse of Luxembourg took over the march on October 2 of the same year. In 1374, the Luxembourgians allied with all branches of theHouse of Pomerania. Pomeranian dukes even held positions in the march's administration.[91]
When Brandenburg changed hands from the House of Luxembourg to theHouse of Hohenzollern on 11 January 1411 the dukes of Pomerania-Stettin (Szczecin) understood their position endangered and reacted with warfare. The first major battle was the secondBattle of Kremmer Damm on 24 October 1412. While the dukes of Pomerania-Wolgast had sided with the emperor, disappointment over the emperors disapproval of ridding them of formal Brandenburgian overlordship in 1417 drove them to ally with their Stettin relatives and Mecklenburg. This coalition was backed by Denmark and Poland. A series of battles culminated in a decisive defeat on 26 March 1420 in the streets ofAngermünde, and the Uckermark possessions were lost once again.[92]
In 1320 and 1325,Wartislaw IV of Pomerania-Wolgast allied with theLandmeister of theState of the Teutonic Order inPrussia against kingCasimir III of Poland.[93] When theTreaty of Kalisz had ended the subsequentPolish–Teutonic War (1326–32) in 1343, Wartislaw's sonsBogislaw V,Barnim IV andWartislaw V changed sides, and Bogislaw V married Casimir III's daughter,Elisabeth.[93]Barnim III of Pomerania-Stettin joined this alliance in 1348.[93] After Poland andLithuania had formed theUnion of Krėva in 1385, and Poland had rejected the claims of Casimir III's grandsonCasimir IV of Pomerania-Stolp,Bogislaw VIII andWartislaw VII ofPomerania-Stolp in 1386 concluded an anti-Polish alliance with theTeutonic Knights, after they had settled their common border.[93] In 1388, this alliance was joined bySwantibor I andBogislaw VII of Pomerania-Stettin as well asBarnim VI andWartislaw VI of Pomerania-Wolgast.[93]
Later in 1388 however, the dukes ofPomerania-Stolp left this alliance and sided with Poland, who had promised to partially respect their claims as Casimir III's heirs.[94] Thence, the nobles of Pomerania-Stolprobbed the Teutonic Knights and their supply routes, provoking a counter-attack that destroyed manynoble strongholds and the fortifications ofKöslin (now Koszalin).[94] Bogislaw VIII,Barnim V andWartislaw VII reacted by siding with Polish kingWładysław II Jagiełło and concluding mutual trade alleviations.[94]
When Wartislaw VII died, Bogislaw VIII and Barnim V concluded a treaty with theTeutonic Knights to safeguard their supply routes in turn for a financial credit.[94] Swantibor I and Bogislaw VII of Pomerania-Stettin changed sides in 1395 and allied with the knights in turn for financial aid.[94] Barnim V in 1397 concluded an alliance with Poland, marriedVytautas' niece Hedwig and was in Władysław II Jagiełło's service in 1401 until he died in 1402 or 1404.[94] Bogislaw VIII also entered into Władysław II Jagiełło's service, but changed sides in 1407–08, when he allied with the Teutonic Knights and settled their common border.[94]
Nikolaus Bock,Cammin bishop from 1398–1410, had also sided with the knights before and placed his bishopric under their suzerainty.[94]Wartislaw VIII of Pomerania-Wolgast allied with the knights in return for an assumption of a debt and additional payments.[94] Swantibor I and Bogislaw VII of Pomerania-Stettin joined this alliance in 1409, after they had concluded a ten-year truce with the knights in return fordebt cancellation before.[94] When the knights lost theBattle of Grunwald in 1410, Bogislaw VIII ofPomerania-Stolp (Słupsk) changed sides again and allied with Poland[94] in return for theBütow (Bytów),Schlochau (Człuchów),Preußisch-Friedland (Debrzno),Baldenburg (Biały Bór),Hammerstein (Czarne) andSchivelbein (Świdwin) areas, which Poland had regained from the State of the Teutonic Order before.[95] This was however cancelled by theFirst Peace of Thorn in 1411.[95]
While Bogislaw VIII nevertheless upheld his alliance with Władysław II Jagiełło,Konrad Bonow of theCammin diocese in 1414 concluded an alliance with the Teutonic Knights against both Bogislaw VIII and Władysław II Jagiełło, which was turned into a truce soon after.[95] In 1417, Bogislaw VIII and the Teutonic Knights settled their common border in the Hammerstein area, ending their conflicts.[95] Bogislaw VIII's sonBogislaw IX together with all otherPomeranian dukes in 1423 allied with the Teutonic Knights.[95]
Eric II of Pomerania-Wolgast and successor ofBogislaw IX inPomerania-Stolp again allied withWładysław II Jagiełło[95] and his son and successorCasimir IV[96] in hisThirteen Years' War against theTeutonic Knights.[96] On 3 January 1455 he, in turn, was granted theLauenburg and Bütow Land at the Pomerelian frontier.[96] WhenLauenburg (Lębork) was retaken by the knights in 1459, the Polish king was upset and ravaged theStolp (Słupsk) area.[96] Eric reconciled with the king on 21 August 1466, and bought the town from the knights on 11 October, six days before theSecond Peace of Thorn, that was signed by Eric in 1467.[95][96] KingCasimir IV of Poland granted the area as a fief to the dukes of Pomerania and after the death of the last DukeBogislaw XIV in 1637 the towns were re-integrated with Poland and included in thePomeranian Voivodeship.
On 15 September 1423 all Pomeranian dukes (includingEric) allied with the Teutonic Knights against Brandenburg and against the Hanseatic towns. In early 1425, this coalition was joined by Mecklenburg and Poland and successfully invaded Brandenburg. Apeace treaty concluded on 22 May 1427 inEberswalde, left Pomerania with the Uckermark north ofAngermünde. On 16 June 1427 this was confirmed by theTreaty of Templin, which also included a coalition of Pomerania, Brandenburg and Mecklenburg. Yet, in 1440 Pomerania and Brandenburg invaded Mecklenburg, and in 1444 Brandenburg demanded from Pomerania to again hand over the Uckermark to her. When the Pomeranians refused, war broke out again. The firstTreaty of Prenzlau in 1448 set the border south ofPasewalk.[97]
Pomerania-Wolgast was reunited following the death of both Barnim VII and Barnim VIII in 1451. Both dukes died of theplague.[98] The same disease caused the death ofJoachim of Pomerania-Stettin (also in 1451),[98] Ertmar and Swantibor, children ofWartislaw X,[99] andOtto III of Pomerania-Stettin (all in 1464).[99] Thus, the line of Pomerania-Stettin had died out.[99]
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The extinction of the House of Pomerania-Stettin triggered a conflict about inheritance with theMargraviate of Brandenburg.[100] In theTreaty of Soldin of 1466, a compromise was negotiated: Wartislaw X andEric II, the dukes of Pomerania, took over Pomerania-Stettin as a Brandenburgian fief. This was disputed already during the same year by the emperor, who intervened against the Brandenburgian overlordship of Pomerania. This led to a series of further warfare and truces, that were ended by theTreaty of Prenzlau of 1472, basically confirming the ruling of the Soldin treaty, but settling on a border north ofGartz (Oder) resembling Brandenburg's recent gains. This treaty was accepted by the emperor.[101]
In 1474, Eric II died of theplague, and his sonBogislaw X inherited Pomerania-Stolp. Bogislaw's brothers had died the same year. After the death of his uncle Wartislaw X in 1478, he became the first sole ruler in the Duchy of Pomerania since almost 200 years.[100][102]
Eric II had left Pomerania in tense conflicts with Brandenburg andMecklenburg. Bogislaw managed to resolve these conflicts by both diplomatic and military means. He married his sister, Sophia, toMagnus II, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and his other sister, Magarete, was married to Magnus' brotherBalthasar. Bogislaw himself marriedMagareta, daughter of Brandenburg'sPrince-electorFrederick II. Also, in 1478, Bogislaw regained areas lost to Brandenburg by his father, most notably the town ofGartz and other small towns and castles north of the BrandenburgianUckermark. During the confirmation of thePeace of Prenzlau in 1479, the border was finally settled north ofStrasburg and Bogislaw had to take his possessions as a fief from Brandenburg.[100][103]
TheProtestant Reformation reached Pomerania in the early 16th century.Bogislaw X in 1518 sent his son, Barnim IX, to study inWittenberg. In 1521, he personally attended a mass ofMartin Luther in Wittenberg, and also of other reformed preachers in the following years. Also in 1521,Johannes Bugenhagen, the most important person in the following conversion of Pomerania toProtestantism, leftBelbuck Abbey to study in Wittenberg, close to Luther. In Belbuck, a circle had formed before, comprising not only Bugenhagen, but alsoJohann Boldewan,Christian Ketelhut,Andreas Knöpke andJohannes Kureke. These persons, and alsoJohannes Knipstro,Paul vom Rode,Peter Suawe,Jacob Hogensee andJohann Amandus spread the Protestant idea all over Pomerania. At several occasions, this went along with public outrage, plunder and arson directed against the church.[104][105]
The dukes' role in the reformation process was ambitious. Bogislaw X, despite his sympathies, forbade Protestant preaching and tumults shortly before his death. Of his sons,George I opposed, andBarnim IX supported Protestantism as did Georg's son,Philip I. In 1531, George died, and aLandtag inStettin (Szczecin) formally allowed Protestant preaching, if no tumults would arise from this. On 13 December 1534 a Landtag was assembled inTreptow an der Rega (Trzebiatów), where the dukes and the nobility against the vote of Cammin bishopErasmus von Manteuffel officially introduced Protestantism to Pomerania. Bugenhagen in the following month drafted the new church order.[104][105][106]
The Duchy of Pomerania joined theSchmalkaldic League, but did not actively participate in theSchmalkaldic War.[107]
After Bogislaw X's death, his sons initially ruled in common. Yet, after Georg's death, the duchy was partitioned again between Barnim IX, who resided inStettin (Szczecin), and Phillip I, who resided inWolgast. The border ran roughly along theOder andŚwina rivers, with Pomerania-Wolgast now consisting of Hither orWestern Pomerania (Vorpommern, yet without Stettin andGartz (Oder) on the Oder river's left bank, and withGreifenberg on its right bank), and Pomerania-Stettin consisting ofFarther Pomerania. The secular possessions of theBishopric of Cammin around Kolberg (Kolobrzeg) subsequently came under control by the dukes, as from 1556 the titular bishops of Cammin were members of the ducal family.[20][104]
Despite the division, the duchy maintained one central government.[108]
In 1569, Pomerania-Barth (consisting of the area aroundBarth,Damgarten andRichtenberg) was split off Pomerania-Wolgast to satisfyBogislaw XIII. In the same year, Pomerania-Rügenwalde (consisting of the areas aroundRügenwalde andBütow) was split off Pomerania-Stettin to satisfyBarnim XII.[109] Though the partitions were named similar to the earlier ones, their territory differed significantly.
In contrast to the partition of 1532, it was agreed that two governments were maintained inWolgast andStettin.[108] Decisions of war and peace were to be made only by a commonLandtag.[110]
During the 1560s, Pomerania was caught between theNorthern Seven Years' War for hegemony in theBaltic Sea[108] and the struggle for hegemony in theUpper Saxon Circle of theElectorate of Saxony andBrandenburg.[111] In 1570, the war in the Baltic ended with theTreaty of Stettin. In 1571–74, the duchy's status regardingBrandenburg was finally settled: While an agreement of 1529 ruled Brandenburg to succeed in Pomerania once theHouse of Pomerania died out in turn for the final rejection of Brandenburgian claims to hold Pomerania as a fief, it was now agreed that both ruling houses had a mutual right of succession in case of the extinction of the other one.[108]
Also in 1571, a trade war between the townsFrankfurt (Oder) (Brandenburg) andStettin (Pomerania), ongoing since 1560, was settled in favour of Brandenburg.[108] The struggle within the Upper Saxon Circle however went on. The Pomeranian dukesJohann Friedrich andErnst Ludwig refused to pay their taxes to the circle's treasury (Kreiskasten inLeipzig) properly, and in the rare cases they did, they marked it as a voluntary act.[111] Furthermore, the dukes ratified the circle's decrees only with caveats that made it possible for them to withdraw at any time.[111] The Pomeranian dukes justified their actions with events of 1563, when an army led byEric of Brunswick crossed and devastated their duchy, and the circle did not give them support.[111] On the other hand, the Pomeranian refusal to properly integrate in the circle's structure likewise reduced the circle's ability to act as a unified military power.[111]
The partitioned duchy underwent an economical recession in the late 16th century.[112] The dukes' ability to control the inner affairs of the duchy severely declined in the course of the 16th century.[112] As the central power was weakened by the partitions and increasingly indebted, the independence of nobles and towns rose.[112] Attempts of Duke Johann Friedrich to strengthen the ducal position, e.g. by introducing a general tax, failed due to the resistance of the nobility, who had gained the right to veto ducal tax decrees at the circle's convent.[112] In 1594–1597, the duchy participated in theOttoman Wars.[110] Yet, due to the rejection of financial support by the nobility, the Pomeranian dukes' funds for the campaign were low, resulting in their humiliation during the war for fighting with bad horses and weapons.[110]
Bogislaw XIV was the last Duke of Pomerania. In the course of theThirty Years' War, the duchy was occupied first byAlbrecht von Wallenstein's mercenary army after theCapitulation of Franzburg in 1627, and then by theSwedish Empire, which was appreciated and confirmed by Bogislaw in theTreaty of Stettin (1630). The duchy was finally dissolved after Bogislaw's death in 1637. With the 1648Peace of Westphalia,Further Pomerania was assigned toBrandenburg-Prussia who held the rights for inheritance (Province of Pomerania (1653-1815)).Hither Pomerania stayed with the Swedish Empire and henceforth became known asSwedish Pomerania. The border was settled in theTreaty of Stettin (1653). Both parts were merged into thePrussianProvince of Pomerania in 1815.
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Furthermore, several Pomeranian duchies were co-ruled by members of theHouse of Pomerania:
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On 26 July 1530, the ducal coat of arms was reformed on behalf ofBogislaw X, Duke of Pomerania at theReichstag inAugsburg.[113] The ducal coat of arms since 1530 showed
Before 1530, the coat of arms had five fields, showing four griffins symbolizing Pomerania-Stettin, Pomerania, Wenden, Cassubia, and an empty regalia field.[113][114]
 Upper Saxon Circle (1512–1806) of the Holy Roman Empire | ||
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Circles est. 1500:Bavarian,Swabian,Upper Rhenish,Lower Rhenish–Westphalian,Franconian,(Lower) Saxon Circles est. 1512:Austrian,Burgundian,Upper Saxon,Electoral Rhenish · Unencircled territories See also:Ernestine duchies | ||
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