Duchy of Croatia | |||||||||||
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| 7th century[1]–c. 925a | |||||||||||
 Southeast Europec. 850; Duchy of Croatia is shaded pink. | |||||||||||
| Capital | No permanent seat[2] Nin Klis Bijaći Solin Knin | ||||||||||
| Common languages | |||||||||||
| Religion | |||||||||||
| Demonym | Croats | ||||||||||
| Government | Duchy | ||||||||||
| Duke | |||||||||||
• early 7th century | "Father ofPorga" and Porga(firstArchons) | ||||||||||
• 810–821 | Borna(first known Duke) | ||||||||||
• 910–925 | Tomislav(last Duke) | ||||||||||
| Historical era | Middle Ages | ||||||||||
• Established | 7th century[1] | ||||||||||
• Frankish vassalage | 790s | ||||||||||
• Papal recognition | 7 June 879 | ||||||||||
| c. 925a | |||||||||||
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| Today part of | |||||||||||
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TheDuchy of Croatia (ModernCroatian:Kneževina Hrvatska; alsoDuchy of the Croats, Modern Croatian:Kneževina Hrvata;Latin:Ducatus Chroatorum;Greek:Χρωβατία) was amedieval state that was established byWhite Croats who migrated into the area of the formerRoman province of Dalmatiac. 7th century AD. Throughout its existence the Duchy had several seats – namely,Klis,Solin,Knin,Bijaći andNin. It comprised thelittoral – the coastal part of today's Croatia– exceptIstria, and included a large part of the mountainoushinterland as well.
The Croats settled in Dalmatia after defeating thePannonian Avars, during the time of Byzantine emperorHeraclius I. The Duchy was in the center of competition between theByzantine Empire and theCarolingian Empire for rule over the area. Croatian rivalry withVenice emerged in the first decades of the 9th century and would continue through the following centuries. Croatia also waged battles with theBulgarian Empire (foundedc. 681; Bulgar-Croatian relations improved greatly afterwards) and with theArabs; it also sought to extend its control overimportant coastal city-states under the rule of Byzantium. Croatia experienced periods ofvassalage tothe Franks or to the Byzantines and ofde facto independence until 879, when DukeBranimir was recognized as an independent ruler byPope John VIII. The Duchy was ruled by theTrpimirović andDomagojević dynasties from 845 to 1091. Around 925, during the rule ofTomislav, Croatia becamea kingdom.
"Dalmatian Croatia" (Dalmatinska Hrvatska) and "Littoral Croatia" (Primorska Hrvatska) are modernappellations amongst historians for the Duchy. The state is sometimes called aprincipality, i.e. the "Principality of Croatia". The first recorded name for the Duchy was "Land of the Croats" (Latin:regnum Croatorum) in 852.[4] Croatia was not yet a kingdom at the time and the termregnum is used in terms of a country in general.[5] In Byzantine sources the entity was usually called just "Croatia" (Greek:Χρωβατία).[6]
The first known duke,Borna, was named "Duke of Dalmatia" (Latin:Dux Dalmatiae)[7] and later "Duke of Dalmatia and Liburnia" (Latin:Dux Dalmatiae atque Liburniae)[8] in theAnnales regni Francorum. The Croatian name is recorded in contemporary charters of Croatian dukes from the second half of the 9th century.Trpimir I was named "Duke of the Croats" (Latin:Dux Chroatorum) in a Latin charter issued in 852,[9] while Branimir was defined as "Duke of the Croats" (Latin:Dux Cruatorvm) on a preservedinscription fromŠopot nearBenkovac.[10]
Within the area of theRoman province of Dalmatia, various tribal groupings, which were calledsclaviniae by theByzantines, were settled along theAdriatic coast. Croatia in the early Middle Ages was an area bounded by the Eastern Adriatic hinterland on one side, then extended to a part of westernHerzegovina, western and centralBosnia, then into Lika,Gacka andKrbava, and North-West toVinodol andLabin in theCroatian Littoral area.[11] Severalcoastal Dalmatian city-states were under the rule of the Byzantines, includingSplit,Zadar,Kotor andDubrovnik, as well as islands ofHvar andKrk.[12] To the south Croatia bordered with the land of theNarentines, which stretched from the riversCetina toNeretva, and had the islands ofBrač, Hvar,Korčula,Mljet, Vis andLastovo in its possession.[13] In the southern part ofDalmatia, there wasZahumlje (Zachumlia),Travunia and Dioclea (todayMontenegro). North of Croatia there was theDuchy of Lower Pannonia. Croatia, as well as other early medieval states, didn't have a permanent capital and Croatian dukes resided in various places on their courts. The first important center of Croatia wasKlis near Split, where Duke Trpimir I resided. Other dukes ruled from the towns ofSolin,Knin,Biaći andNin.[2][14][15]
TheRoman provinces and native populations inSoutheastern Europe, including the province ofDalmatia and other parts of thePraetorian prefecture of Illyricum, were attacked and conquered by theHuns andGoths with the latterOstrogoths formingOstrogothic Kingdom (493–553). The archaeological findings offibulae and otherartifacts confirm the presence of Ostrogoths andGepids in Northern Dalmatia,[16][17][18] and Pannonia.[19]
Although theByzantine Empire managed to reconquest the territory (albeit thePlague of Justinian andLate Antique Little Ice Age),[20] since the mid-6th century followed even more devastating intrusions and migrations of theearly Slavs.[20] Most of the Roman province by the 7th century were pressured byAvar Khaganate, a nomadic confederacy led by thePannonian Avars who subjugated surrounding Slavic tribes.[21] In c. 614 the Avars and Slavs sacked and decisively destroyed the capital of the province of Dalmatia,Salona, and retained direct control of the region.[22]
According to theDe Administrando Imperio, theWhite Croats were either invited into province of Dalmatia by the Byzantine EmperorHeraclius (r. 610–641) and allowed to settle there after defeating the Avars, or prevailing the Avars after the lengthy war the Croats migrated across the Sava fromPannonia Savia and settled Dalmatia on their own.[23] According to the same source, the Croats were led by five brothers (Kloukas, Lobelos, Kosentzis, Mouchlo, Chrobatos) and two sister (Touga, Bouga), their firstarchon during the Avar wars and settlement was unnamed father ofPorga, and first Christianization happened during the rule of Porga himself (both contemporaries of Heraclius, as per source).[24] However, the accounts have been variously interpreted by historians, that the Croatian war against the Avars possibly was a revolt after the Croats already settled in Dalmatia, were supported diplomatically by theByzantine Empire after the unsuccessfulSiege of Constantinople (626),[25][26][27] or was a reference to the late 8th and early 9th century Frankish-Avar Wars (rejected[28]).[29] Although theChristianization of Croats began right after their arrival to Dalmatia, in the early 9th century a part of the Croats were still pagan,[30] being a gradual process which continued in the 8th until mid-9th century.[31][32]
By the early 9th century, Croatia emerged as a political entity with aduke as head of the state, territorially in the basins of the rivers Cetina,Krka andZrmanja. It was administered in 11counties (županija):
From that time they remained independent and autonomous, and they requested holy baptism from Rome, and bishops were sent and baptized them in the time of their ArchonPorinos. Their land was divided in elevenzupanias, which are:Hlebiana, Tzenzena,Emota, Pleba, Pesenta, Parathalassia, Brebere, Nona, Tnena, Sidraga, Nina, and theirban has Kribasan, Litzan, Goutzeska.
The evidence for the 7th century arrival of new Slavic(-Croatian) population are cremation burials,Prague culture pottery,fibulae and other artifacts found near them, which are atypical for a Roman and Christian population at the time,[34][35][36][37][38][39][40] as well destruction of inhabitations and churches, and changes of native's lifestyle.[41] In case of early Croats, the inhumation was also done making a burial chamber with wooden or stone structure, which "was a tradition brought from the original homeland of the Croats in the north, and had no parallels in the native regional cultures".[42] However, although material culture proves migration of the Slavs, it is practically impossible to differentiate with early Slavic material culture the Slavic tribal ethnic identities from the general mass of Slavs.[43][44]
Christianization possibly began to be more widely accepted since the 8th century.[45] The cremation burials in the early 8th century were followed by cemeteries in rows with pagan burial practices until mid-9th century, then cemeteries in rows with pagan and Christian burial practices and cemeteries in rows with exclusively Christian burial practices until second-half of the 11th century, and cemeteries next to churches with burials from the 9th to 11th centuries, with mandatory burials next to churches since second-third of the 11th century.[46][32]
In the Pannonian part of Croatia were found both Early and Late Avar artifacts, while in the Littoral part of Croatia the findings of Avar origin are almost non-existent (three) and only date to the Late Avar period.[47] In Dalmatia they most probably were war booty from the Frankish-Avar Wars (788–803), orBattle of Kupa (819).[48]
Croats from the late-8th and in the 9th century have high concentration ofCarolingian-Viking swords (over 24,[49] mostly of K-type but also 1-type and H-type,[50][51] post-Carolingian emerge R-type and X-type[52][53]), and other war equpiment (including a long knife, long spear, and arrows, as well boots with spurs, belt trappings and else of Carolingian influence),[54] some considered as evidence of Croatian participation in theFrankish-Avar Wars in the late 8th and early 9th century (although Frankish sources do not mention Croatian ethnonym between early 7th and late 9th century[55]), and being part of the Central-European and Carolingian political and cultural world of influence at least since dukeBorna (c. 810–821).[56][57] However, the distribution and concentration of K-type swords in Europe does not correspond with the hypothesis they were official armament of the Frankish army.[58] They are neither evidence of a late 8th-early 9th century migration of Croats, as some scholars have argued, but as Frankish gifts of loyalty,[59] were influential to the consolidation of the Croatian elite identity and ethnogenesis at the time.[60][61] The distribution of post-Carolingian weapons and cavalry equipment in present-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, found near old roads and often with gold coins ofConstantine V (741–775) which were still in use,[62] is within the borders and correspoding historical events related to the Duchy of Croatia and Kingdom of Croatia.[63]
Recent archaeological findings fromBrekinjova Kosa at Bojna nearGlina in Lower Pannonia, including rich burial (golden spurs with mounting set, pendant with rock crystal, gold coin of Constantine V, clothing woven with gold threads) belonging to a local duke at Bojna, which have very similar analogies in Biskupija near Knin and Morpolača nearStankovci in Dalmatia,[64] indicate it belonged to the Croats who spread control to the area aroundSisak.[65]
Female dress earrings (grape-like made of precious metals) and else include "examples of the craftsmanship of Byzantine goldsmiths, presumably imported through one of the cities in Dalmatia which was under Byzantine rule", but "are known to have been found in Western Pannonia".[66] Simpler jewellery of silver and bronze are S-type (typical of Sclaveni) and pseudo-S-type earrings, omega-type and star-shaped pendants of Byzantine origin, and many rings and necklaces.[66] Rare containers made of antlers and engraved with iconography (two horned animals facing thetree of life between them) were also found only in Western Pannonia (Sopron andZalavar, Hungary).[67] Artifacts made of bone, alongside other mentioned, suddenly disappear with the introduction of the Christian burial since the mid-9th century, as well were abandoned pagan necropolises (nearby which emerge graveyards of Christian ritual), but there was no destruction, which indicate that the "adoption of Christianity by the Croats was effected without great social upheavals".[68] Several archaeological findings and inscriptions dating to the late 8th and first half of the 9th century in the territory of early medieval Croatia show missionary activity of thePatriarchate of Aquileia.[69]
Some of the findings "are a characteristic of Croatian production".[50] Since the mid-9th century flourished a distinctive Croatian-type production of jewellery (most notable being large bead shaped earrings with "no contemporary European parallel", while statistically by order earrings, pendants, rings, buttons, necklaces).[70] The workshops probably were located inSolin andKnin in Dalmatia,[71] and Sisak in the continental part.[72] Archaeologists recognize and distinguish two cultural variants of the "Old-Croatian" archaeological period (7/9th-11th century[73]), a proper Old-Croatian or Croatian-Dalmatian/Littoral culture, and Pannonian-Bijelo Brdo culture (since mid-10th century[74]),[75][76] which were contemporary toCarinthian-Köttlach culture in the west.[77][78] Findings of the Croatian-Dalmatian variant were found from Istria down to Dubrovnik, in the hinterland near riversNeretva,Vrbas andBosna and into southwestern Pannonia, while the second variant was mostly present betweenSava–Drava region in Croatia and in northernBosnia and Herzegovina with some findings in Adriatic coast and hinterland.[79][80] The archaeological findings of Croatian-Dalmatian culture in Lower Pannonia and northwestern Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well in Istria and eastern parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, can be attributed to influence and trade, but also expansion of the early medieval Croatia.[81]
TheFranks gained control of Pannonia and Dalmatia in the 790s and the first decade of the ninth century.[82] In 788Charlemagne, after conqueringLombardy, turned further east and subjugatedIstria. In the 790s, DukeVojnomir of Pannonia accepted the Frankish overlordship, whose land the Franks placed under theMarch of Friuli and tried to extend their rule over the Croatians of Dalmatia. In 799, the Franks under the leadership ofEric of Friuli were defeated in theBattle of Trsat inLiburnia. However, from 803 Frankish rule was recognized in most of northern Dalmatia.[83] The Franks also waged wars with the Byzantine Empire until a peace treaty, known as thePax Nicephori, was signed in 812. By that treaty the Byzantines retained control of the coastal cities and islands in Dalmatia, while acknowledging Frankish rule over Istria and the Dalmatian hinterland.[84]
From c. 810Borna ruled most of northern Dalmatia and was a vassal of theCarolingian Empire.[83] Borna was Duke of theGuduscani (and later duke ofDalmatia, as wellDalmatia and Liburnia), a tribe that most probably lived in the region ofGacka (today inLika). His rule was marked by the rebellion ofLjudevit Posavski against the Franks (defeatingCadolah of Friuli), and Ljudevit defeated Borna in theBattle of Kupa (819) somewhere near theRiver Kupa and began to ravage Dalmatia, but harsh conditions and constant attacks from Borna's men forced Ljudevit to retreat.[7] In 821 Borna died and was succeeded by his nephewVladislav and uncleLjudemisl (who managed to kill Ljudevit).[8]
The vassalage and conflict between Lower Pannonian Slavs and Franks, also possibly influenced by second 9th century conflict during Croatianduke Domagoj, is probably reflected in the 30th chapter account fromDe Administrando Imperio that "Until quite recently the Croats of Dalmatia also were subject to the Franks ... the Franks treated them with such brutality that they used to murder Croat babies and cast them to the dogs. The Croats, unable to endure such treatment from the Franks, revolted from them, and slew those of them whom they had for archontes. Because of this, a large army from Francia marched against them, and after they had fought one another for seven years, at last, and with hardship, the Croats managed to prevail and killed all the Franks and their archon, called Kotzil".[85][86]
The Duchy of Croatia was located between two major powers of the Middle Ages: theEastern Roman Empire in the East which controlled the Dalmatian cities and islands and aimed to extend their rule over the entire former Roman province of Dalmatia, and the Franks in the West seeking to control the northern and northwestern lands.[87] The Byzantine influence on Croatia was also reflected on the creation of Croatian law and in trade with the Byzantine coastal cities.[88]
In the second quarter of the 9th century the Croats began developing a navy. Along with the Narentines, who were stillpagan at the time and occupied the territory of the river Neretva mouth, they were active in the Adriatic Sea and made shipping and traveling in the area hazardous, especially for Venice.[89] Therefore, in 839 theVenetians underDogePietro Tradonico attacked the eastern coast of the Adriatic, including Croatia, but during the assault they signed peace with their ruler,princepsMislav (Latin:principe Muisclavo), who ruled from Klis near Split. The peace treaty was signed at a place named St. Martin. The Doge also attacked Narentine islands, but failed to defeat them and made peace with their leader, who is mentioned as countDrosaico by the chroniclerJohn the Deacon. However, the peace treaty was short-lasting and next year the Venetians were defeated by the Narentines under countDiuditum.[90] Piracy continued in the Adriatic, as well as hostility towards Venice, which is seen from the contract between EmperorLothair I and Doge Tradonico, in which the Doge committed himself to defend the cities inItaly and Istria from Slavic attacks.[91]
Duke Mislav was succeeded around 845 byTrpimir I, who continued the formal legacy of being thevassal of theFrankish king Lothair I (840–855), although he managed to strengthen his personal rule in Croatia. Arab campaigns thoroughly weakened the Byzantine Empire and Venice, which was used in the advance of the Croatian duke in 846 and 848. In 846, Trpimir successfully attacked the Byzantine coastal cities and theirpatricius. Between 854 and 860, he successfully defended his land from theBulgarian invasion underKnyazBoris I of Bulgaria, somewhere in NortheasternBosnia, concluding a peace treaty with Boris and exchanging gifts. Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentions the traditional friendship between theBulgarians andCroatians, who coexisted peacefully up to that time.[92][93][94]
In a Latin charter preserved in a rewrite from 1568, dated to 4 March 852 or, according to a newer research, about 840,[95] Trpimir refers to himself as "leader of the Croats with the help of God" (Latin:dux Croatorum iuvatus munere divino); his land, called "Kingdom of the Croats" (Latin:regnum Croatorum), can simply be interpreted as the "Realm of theCroats", since Trpimir was not a king. The termregnum was also used by other dukes of that time as a sign of their independence.[96] This charter also documents his ownership of the Klis Fortress, from where his rule was centered, and mentions Mislav's donations to theArchbishopric of Split. In the proximity of his court inKlis, in Rižinice, Trpimir built a church and the firstBenedictine monastery in Croatia. Trpimir's name is inscribed on a stone fragment from an altar screen of the Rižinice monastery church.[97] He is more expressly remembered as the founder of theHouse of Trpimirović, a native Croat dynasty that ruled, with interruptions, from 845 until 1091 in Croatia.[98]
In 864 DukeDomagoj, founder of theHouse of Domagojević, usurped the throne after the death of Trpimir and forced his sons, includingZdeslav, to flee toConstantinople.[10] During the rule of Domagoj piracy was a common practice in the Adriatic. The pirates attacked Christian sailors, including a ship withpapal legates returning from theEighth Catholic Ecumenical Council,[99] thus forcing the Pope to intervene by asking Domagoj to stop piracy, but his efforts were of no avail. Domagoj waged wars with theArabs, Venetians and Franks. In 871, he helped the Franks, as their vassal, to seizeBari from the Arabs, but later actions of the Franks under the rule ofCarloman of Bavaria led to a revolt by Domagoj against the Frankish rule. The revolt succeeded and Frankish overlordship in Dalmatia ended, but was to continue a little longer overLower Pannonia.[100] Domagoj's rule also saw increasedByzantine influence in the area, especially reflected in the establishment ofTheme of Dalmatia. After the death of Domagoj in 876 Zdeslav, who had close ties to Byzantium, returned from exile, usurped the throne from an unnamed son of Domagoj and restored peace with Venice in 878.[101]
Duke Zdeslav's reign was short and ended in 879 whenBranimir of the House of Domagojević killed him and usurped the throne.[102] Branimir was unlike Zdeslav a proponent of Rome and returned the country to the Roman fold. He had regular contacts withPope John VIII, to whom he sent a letter revealing his intentions to entrust his people and his country to theApostolic See. The Pope replied to his requests, praising his initiative and in 879 the Duchy under Branimir, now free of Frankish suzerainty, received papal recognition as a state.[100][103]
The second half of the 9th century marked a significant increase in papal influence in theSoutheastern Europe. Pope John VIII complained to Domagoj about the obstinacy ofPatriarch Ignatius who denied his jurisdiction over Bulgaria and appointed a new archbishop. The Pope also requested from Dukes Zdeslav and Branimir assistance and protection for his legates who were crossing Croatia on their way toBulgaria. Although the exact geographical extent of the Duchy is not known, these requests confirm geographical contiguity between Croatia and Bulgaria, which bordered probably somewhere inBosnia.[103]
Muncimir (also called Mutimir), the youngest son of Trpimir, came to throne after the death of Branimir (c. 892), which marked the return of the House of Trpimirović to power. A Latin charter from Biaći nearTrogir dated to 28 September 892 named Muncimir "Duke of the Croats" (Latin:Croatorum dux).[104] During his rule, in the late 9th century the Hungarianscrossed the Carpathians and entered theCarpathian Basin.[105] They invaded northern Italy and also defeated DukeBraslav from the Duchy of Pannonia, endangering Croatia.[106]
Muncimir ruled until about 910 when he was succeeded byTomislav, the last duke and the first king of Croatia. Venetian chronicler John the Deacon wrote that in 912 a Venetian ambassador, returning from Bulgaria, passed through Croatian territory before reaching the land of Zahumlje,[107] which suggests that Croatia at the time also bordered Bulgaria, then under the rule ofSimeon I.[108] InHistoria Salonitana, a chronicle from the 13th century written byThomas the Archdeacon from Split, Tomislav was mentioned as Duke of Croatia in 914.[109] According toDe Administrando Imperio, Croatia at the time had 100,000 infantrymen and 60,000 horsemen, 80 large ships and 100 smaller vessels,[92] but these numbers are viewed as a clear exaggeration and an overemphasis of the Croatian forces. Croatia also waged battles with the Magyars during the early 10th century.[106] According to thepalaeographic analysis of the original manuscript ofDe Administrando Imperio, assumed number of inhabitants in medieval Croatia estimated between 440,000 and 880,000 people, and military numbers of Franks and Byzantines, the military force was most probably composed of 20,000–100,000 infantrymen, and 3,000–24,000 horsemen organized in 60allagions.[110][111]
During thewar between the Byzantium and Bulgaria of Simeon I, in about 923, the Byzantines concluded an alliance with Croatia. Prior to that the Bulgarians had several decisive victories against the Byzantines, capturingAdrianople and endangering Constantinople. In 924, Simeon I deposedZaharija from rule inSerbia, who fled to Croatia. In 926, Simeon's troops invaded Croatia, but were severely defeated in theBattle of the Bosnian Highlands.[3][112] In 927Pope John X sent his legates to mediate a peace treaty between Croats and Bulgarians.[113]
During these years Croatia was elevated to the status of akingdom. It is generally said that Duke Tomislav was crowned king in 925, but this is not certain since it is not known when and where was he crowned, or was he crowned at all. However, Tomislav was the first Croatian ruler whom the Papal chancellery honoured with the title king.[114] Tomislav is mentioned as a king in two preserved documents published in theHistoria Salonitana and by theChronicle of the Priest of Duklja, where Tomislav's rule was specified at 13 years. In a note preceding the text of the Council conclusions in Split in 925 it is written that Tomislav is the king "in the province of the Croats and in the Dalmatian regions" (in prouintia Croatorum et Dalmatiarum finibus Tamisclao rege). In the 12th canon of the Council conclusions in 925 the ruler of the Croats is called "king" (rex et proceres Chroatorum),[115] while in a letter sent by the Pope John X Tomislav is named "King of the Croats" (Tamisclao, regi Crouatorum).[116] Although there are no inscriptions of Tomislav to confirm the title, later inscriptions and charters confirm that his 10th century successors called themselves "kings".[113]
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Nalaze grobne keramike s područja Hrvatske u više je navrata razmatrao J. Belošević, te došao do zaključka da se otkriveno posuđe s obzirom na oblik može podijeliti na ono tipično slavenskih oblika (jajoliki i kružno-jajoliki lonci poput primjerka s Bukorovića podvornice) i ono koje odražava kasnoantičke tradicije (lonci s ručkama i vrčevi s izljevom).119 U tehnološkom smislu, kao i zbog načina ukrašavanja, može se zaključiti da sve to posuđe nastaje pod utjecajem kasnoantičke keramičke produkcije. Ono, međutim, ne predstavlja dokaz o znatnijem sudjelovanju starosjedilačkoga stanovništva u oblikovanju nove etničke slike u Dalmaciji, kako je to, na osnovi pojedinih keramičkih nalaza, pokušao protumačiti A. Milošević.120 Upravo obrnuto, pojava posuđa u grobovima prvi je materijalni dokaz kojim je obilježena prisutnost novog naroda na ovim prostorima, a nikad i nigdje nije zabilježena na grobljima 6. i ranog 7. stoljeća, koja se sa sigurnošću mogu pripisati starijem stanovništvu (npr. Knin-Greblje, Korita-Duvno).121 Osim toga, prilaganje posuđa povezano je s poganskim pogrebnim običajima kakvi su, bez obzira na određeni stupanj barbarizacije, nespojivi s kršćanskom pripadnošću spomenutog stanovništva...
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