Duchy of Bukovina | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1849–1918 | |||||||||
 Coat of arms | |||||||||
 The Duchy of Bukovina within Austria-Hungary | |||||||||
| Status | Land of theAustrian Empire (1849–1867) Crown land ofCisleithania (1867–1918) | ||||||||
| Capital | Czernowitz (Cernăuți / Chernivtsi) | ||||||||
| Common languages | German,Romanian,Ukrainian | ||||||||
| Government | Constitutional Monarchy (1861–1918) | ||||||||
| Landespräsident | |||||||||
• 1849 | Eduard von Bach | ||||||||
• 1917–1918 | Josef Graf von Ezdorf | ||||||||
| History | |||||||||
• Annexation of northwesternMoldavia by theHabsburg monarchy[1][2][3] and integration into theKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria as theBukovina District | 1775 | ||||||||
• Establishment of the Duchy of Bukovina | 4 March 1849 | ||||||||
• Declaration of Union withRomania | 28 November 1918 | ||||||||
| 10 September 1919 | |||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
• Total | 10,442 km2 (4,032 sq mi) | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of | Romania Ukraine | ||||||||
TheDuchy of Bukovina (German:Herzogtum Bukowina or Herzogtum Buchenland;Romanian:Ducatul Bucovinei;Ukrainian:Герцогство Буковина,romanized: Hertsohstvo Bukovyna) was a constituent land of theAustrian Empire from 1849 and aCisleithanian crown land ofAustria-Hungary from 1867 until 1918.
The nameBukovina came into official use in 1775 with the region's annexation from the Principality ofMoldavia to the possessions of theHabsburg monarchy (which became the Austrian Empire in 1804, and Austria-Hungary in 1867).
The officialGerman name,die Bukowina, of the province under Austrian rule (1775–1918), was derived from thePolish formBukowina, which in turn was derived from the Ukrainian word, Буковина (Bukovyna), and the commonSlavic form ofbuk, meaningbeech tree (бук [buk] as, for example, inUkrainian or, even,Buche in German).[4][5] Another German name for the region,das Buchenland, is mostly used in poetry, and means"beech land", or"the land of beech trees". In Romanian, in literary or poetic contexts, the nameȚara Fagilor ("the land of beech trees") is sometimes used.
In English, an alternative form isThe Bukovina, increasingly an archaism, which, however, is found in older literature.
After theMongol invasion of Europe, theBukovina lands since the 14th century had been part of the Principality of Moldavia, withSuceava being the princely capital from 1388 to 1565. In the 16th century, Moldavia came underOttoman suzerainty, but still retaining its autonomy.[6] During the early 18th century, Moldavia became the target of theRussian Empire's southwards expansion, inaugurated by TsarPeter the Great during thePruth River Campaign of 1710–11. In 1769, during theRusso-Turkish War of 1768–74, Moldavia was occupied by theImperial Russian Army.
Following theFirst Partition of Poland in 1772, theHabsburg monarchy had aimed at a land connection from thePrincipality of Transylvania to the newly acquiredKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. After the Russo-TurkishTreaty of Küçük Kaynarca was concluded in July 1774, the Austrians entered into negotiations with theSublime Porte from October and could finally obtain a territory of Moldavia with an area of about 10,000 square kilometres (ca. 4,000 square miles) they calledBukowina, which they formally annexed in January 1775. On 2 July 1776, at Palamutka, Austrians and Ottomans signed a border convention, the Habsburg monarchy giving back 59 of the previously occupied villages, and remaining with 278 villages. For opposing and protesting the annexation of the northwestern part of Moldavia, the Moldavian ruler PrinceGrigore III Ghica was assassinated by the Ottomans.[7][8]
Bukovina at first was a closed military district from 1775 until 1786, and then was incorporated as the largest district, theBukovina District, of the Austrian constituent Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. So far, the Moldavian nobility had traditionally formed the ruling class in that territory. The Habsburg emperorJoseph II wished to affiliate the region with the provinces of the Austrian monarchy (though not with theHoly Roman Empire); he had the devastated lands colonised byDanube Swabians, later known asBukovina Germans. In the mid 19th century the town ofSadhora became the centre of the HasidicSadigura dynasty. The immigration process promoted the further economic development of the multi-ethnic country, though it remained a remote eastern outpost of the Danube Monarchy.
In 1804, the region became part of the newly establishedAustrian Empire. After the political turmoil of the1848 revolutions, the estates urged the Vienna government to elevate the Bukovina to a separate AustrianKronland (crown land). With effect of 4 March 1849, the formerKreis was declared theHerzogtum Bukowina, a nominal duchy as part of the official full style of theAustrian emperor. It was governed by ak.k. Statthalter (stadtholder) appointed by the emperor, with his official residence at Czernowitz from 1850.
In 1860 the Bukovina was again amalgamated with Galicia, but reinstated as a separate province once again according to the 1861February Patent issued by EmperorFranz Joseph I. The reinstated crown land received its ownLandtag diet including aLandesausschuss executive authority, a status that would last until 1918.[9] In 1867, with the re-organisation of the Austrian Empire as theAustro-Hungarian Empire, it became part of theCisleithanian ("Austrian") territories. Upon the promulgation of theDecember Constitution, theImperial Council, on the initiative of the CisleithanianCitizens' Ministry led byKarl von Auersperg, decided to confer the titleLandespräsident on the former stadtholder, heading aLandesregierung (state government). Nine (from1907 elections: 14) delegates represented the Bukovina in the AustrianHouse of Deputies.
The main military force in the region during peacetime was the 22nd Infantry Regiment at Czernowitz, at that time the onlyk.k. Landwehr regiment with a Romanian majority (54%). As soon as hostilities began, however, new units were formed from the locally recruited population. The 22nd, 23rd and 41st Landwehr Regiments, along with the 4th Dragoons regiment all had Romanian majority.[10][11] To encourage recruitment, the Romanians were allowed to wear their national colors as well as receiving spiritual guidance by ethnic-Romanian military priests.[12]
In 1914–15 large parts of the Bukovina were occupied by the Russian8th Army under GeneralAleksei Brusilov after the Austro-Hungarian defeat in theBattle of Galicia and could only be regained by the united forces of theCentral Powers after the German-ledGorlice–Tarnów Offensive and the RussianGreat Retreat. The Romanian troops fought bravely, 62 being awarded theMedal for Bravery. In one instance, the 41st Regiment fought for 54 hours continuously.[13] By 4 June 1916, The Bukovinian Romanian casualties were 184 killed, 1175 wounded and 82 captured.[14]
In the autumn of 1918, the multi-ethnic state of Austria-Hungary collapsed and theMinistry of War officially ordereddemobilization, though no central authority was able to ensure the decommissioning of arms. On 18 October 1918, theUkrainian National Council established inLemberg, Galicia, planned to declare a Ukrainian Republic that would also incorporate the Bukovina andCarpathian Ruthenia.[15] On 25 October 1918, a Ukrainian regional committee, led byEmilian Popowicz, was established in Czernowitz to represent the Ukrainian National Council in Bukovina.[15] On 14/27 October 1918, at the initiative ofSextil Pușcariu,Iancu Flondor, andIsidor Bodea, the Constituent Assembly of Bukovina established, in Czernowitz, the Romanian National Council (consisting of representatives from the Austrian parliament and from the Bukovina diet, and local political activists), which adopted a declaration to support the union of Bukovina withRomania, and demanded the last AustrianLandespräsident governor Josef Graf Etzdorf to cede his power.[16]
In the meantime, the local paramilitary forces of the Ukrainian National Council took control over Czernowitz and other parts of Bukovina, effectively supplanting Austrian control by the 6th of November. Although local Ukrainians attempted to incorporate Bukovina into the so-calledWest Ukrainian People's Republic, they were not able to set up an administration.[9] In the light of Ukrainians' actions, the Romanian National Council leader Iancu Flondor, request the Romanian government to intervene in Bukovina. Five days later, the Romanian 8th Division, led by GeneralIacob Zadik, entered Czernowitz,[16] against Ukrainian protests,[17][18] while the Ukrainian paramilitary forces withdrew without resistance to Galicia.[15] Further attempts by local Ukrainians to incorporate parts of northern Bukovina into the West Ukrainian People's Republic were swiftly suppressed by the troops, with the leadership of the Ukrainian National Council fleeing across the Dniester River, to Galicia, which was partially under Ukrainian military control.[9][15]
After the Romanian troops secured the region, aGeneral Congress of Bukovina was established on 15/28 November 1918, which counted among its members 74 Romanians, 13 Ruthenians, 7 Germans, and 6 Poles were elected (this is the linguistic composition, and Jews were not recorded as a separate group).[citation needed] A popular enthusiasm sprang throughout the region, and a large number of people gathered in the city to wait for the resolution of the Congress.[19][verification needed] The Congress elected the Romanian Bukovinian politicianIancu Flondor as chairman, and voted for the union with the Kingdom of Romania, with the support of the Romanian, German, and Polish representatives; Ukrainian representatives boycotted the Congress.[20][21] The reasons stated were that, until its takeover by the Habsburg in 1775, Bukovina was the heart of the Principality of Moldavia (where the voivods' burial sites are located), and right ofself-determination.[22][23]
Romanian control of the province was recognized internationally in theTreaty of St. Germain, in 1919, and theTreaty of Trianon, in 1920, when both theRepublic of German-Austria and theKingdom of Hungary renounced all claims to the Bukovina.
WhenKreis Bukowina was elevated to a duchy in its own right in 1849, it was initially still administered from the Galician capitalLemberg. By order of the Austrian Ministry of the Interior, Czernowitz became the seat of anImperial-Royal (k.k.)Stadtholder in 1850. On 31 August 1860 it was re-subordinated to Lemberg[24] but its separate status was restored in the 1861February Patent, which also granted the Duchy of Bukovina a representative assembly, theLandtag diet with aLandesausschuss executive branch led by aLandeshauptmann.[25] Upon the1907 Cisleithanian legislative election the duchy was represented by 14 delegates in the AustrianImperial Council legislature.
In 1850 the firstpolitical districts (Bezirkshauptmannschaften) were introduced in Bukovina, based on the pre-existing judicial districts (Gerichtsbezirke):[26]
| Political district | Judicial districts |
|---|---|
| Czernowitz | Czernowitz (first and second sections),Sadagora,Streszents |
| Kotzmann | Kotzmann,Zastawna |
| Wischnitza | Wischnitz,Waskoutz,Putilla |
| Radautz | Sereth, Radautz,Seletin |
| Moldauisch Kimpolung | Kimpolung,Wadradorna,Gura humora |
| Suczawa | Suczawa,Solka |
In 1854 the political districts were dissolved and Bukovina was divided into 15Bezirke (districts), plus theStadtbezirk (city-district) of Czernowitz. TheseBezirke (sometimes referred to asAmtsbezirke [de]) were administered centrally via fourBezirksämter (district offices):[27]
In 1868 political districts were reintroduced. There were initially eight political districts, whose territories were based on those of the formerAmtsbezirke:[28]: 299–300
| Political district | Former districts | Area (squareGerman miles) | Population |
|---|---|---|---|
| Czernowitz | Czernowitz, Sadagora | 15.75 | 66,975 |
| Kotzmann | Kotzmann, Zastawna | 15.61 | 75,556 |
| Wisnitz | Wisnitz, Putilla | 22.42 | 34,099 |
| Storožynetz | Storožynetz,Stanestie | 24.33 | 70,388 |
| Radautz | Radautz, Solka | 38.00 | 66,751 |
| Suczawa | Suczawa, Gurahumora | 23.13 | 58,912 |
| Kimpolung | Kimpolung, Dorna | 34.94 | 26,352 |
| Sereth | Sereth | 6.63 | 31,542 |
The boundaries and number of districts were amended several times during the rest of the duchy's existence; by 1914 the Duchy of Bukovina consisted of eleven political districts:
| District | Area | Pop. (1900) |
|---|---|---|
| Czernowitz | 876.05 km2 (338.24 sq mi) | 99,438 |
| Gurahumora (est. 1893) | 739.89 km2 (285.67 sq mi) | 55,741 |
| Kimpolung | 2,349.48 km2 (907.14 sq mi) | 55,688 |
| Kotzmann | 518.80 km2 (200.31 sq mi) | 94,633 |
| Radautz | 184.097 km2 (71.080 sq mi) | 82,152 |
| Sereth | 518.8 km2 (200.3 sq mi) | 60,743 |
| Storoschinetz | 1,152.31 km2 (444.91 sq mi) | 80,100 |
| Suczawa | 569.32 km2 (219.82 sq mi) | 62,447 |
| Waskoutz am Czeremosz (est. 1903) | 427.87 km2 (165.20 sq mi) | 43,595 |
| Wysznitz | 1,499.89 km2 (579.11 sq mi) | 71,631 |
| Zastawna (est. 1905) | 492.82 km2 (190.28 sq mi) | 51,502 |
According to the 1775 Austrian census, the province had a total population of 86,000 (this included 56 villages which were later returned to Moldavia). The census only recorded social status and some ethno-religious groups. In 1919, the historianIon Nistor claimed thatRomanians constituted an overwhelming majority in 1774, roughly 64,000 (85%) of the 75,000 total population. Meanwhile, about 8,000 (10%) wereRuthenians, and 3,000 (4%) other ethnic groups.[29] On the other hand, just four years before the same Nistor claimed the 1774 population consisted of 52,750 Romanians (73%), 15.000 Ruthenians (21%) and 4,000 others "using Romanian in conversation" (6%).[30] In 2011, an anthropological analysis of the Russian census of the population of Moldavia in 1774 asserted a population of 68,700 people in 1774, out of which 40,920 (59.6%) wereRomanians, 22,810Ruthenians andHutsuls (33.2%), and 7.2%Jews,Roma, andArmenians.[31] The Ruthenians lived more densely in the north-west of Bukovina, especially in the zone betweenPrut andDniester and the Hutsuls were concentrated in the mountain zone in the west of the province, especially in the zone of the riversCeremuș andPutyla. In 1787, the imperial officials documented in Czernowitz 414 houses, of which 153 were Moldavian (Romanian), 84 German and 76 Jewish, with the rest being Armenian,Arnaut (Albanian), Czech, Greek, Hungarian, Pole and Ruthene (Ukrainian).[7][32]
During the 19th century, Austrian imperial policies encouraged immigration in order to develop the economy.[33] The immigrants were mainlyUkrainians (at that time referred to asRuthenians fromGalicia) and Romanians fromTransylvania and Hungary, as well as smaller numbers ofGermans, Poles, Jews, and Hungarians.[34] Official censuses in the Austrian Empire did not record ethno-linguistic data until 1850–1851. H.F. Müller gives the 1840 population used for purposes of military conscription as 339,669.[35] According toAlecu Hurmuzaki, by 1848 55% of the population was Romanian. The Austrian census of 1850–1851, which for the first time recorded data regarding languages spoken, shows 48.50% Romanians and 38.07% Ruthenians[36]
In 1843 theRuthenian language was recognized, along with theRomanian language, as 'the language of the people and of the Church in Bukovina'.[34]
According to estimates and Austrian/Austro-Hungarian census data, the population of Bukovina was:
| Year | Romanians | Ruthenians (Ukrainians) | Others (includingBukovina Germans) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1774.[29][31] | 40,920 – 64,000 | 59.6% – 85.33% | 8,000 – 22,810 | 10.6% – 33.2% | 3,000 – 4,970 | 4.0% – 7.2% |
| 1848[29] | 209,293 | 55.4% | 108,907 | 28.8% | 59,381 | 15.8% |
| 1851[37] | 184,718 | 48.5% | 144,982 | 38.1% | 51,126 | 13.4% |
| 1880[38] | 190,005 | 33.4% | 239,960 | 42.2% | 138,758 | 24.4% |
| 1890[39] | 208,301 | 32.4% | 268,367 | 41.8% | 165,827 | 25.8% |
| 1900[40] | 229,018 | 31.4% | 297,798 | 40.8% | 203,379 | 27.8% |
| 1910 | 273,254 | 34.1% | 305,101 | 38.4% | 216,574 | 27.2% |
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