Theodor Seuss Geisel (/suːsˈɡaɪzəl,zɔɪs-/ⓘsoossGHY-zəl, zoyss -;[2][3][4] March 2, 1904 – September 24, 1991)[5] was an American children's author, illustrator, animator, andcartoonist. He is known for his work writing and illustratingmore than 60 books under the pen nameDr. Seuss (/suːs,zuːs/sooss, zooss).[4][6] His work includes many of the most popular children's books of all time, selling over 600 million copies and being translated into more than 20 languages by the time of his death.[7]
Geisel was born and raised inSpringfield, Massachusetts, the son of Theodor Robert Geisel and Henrietta Geisel (née Seuss).[9][10] His father managed the family brewery and was later appointed to supervise Springfield's public park system by MayorJohn A. Denison[11] after the brewery closed because ofProhibition.[12]Mulberry Street in Springfield, made famous in his first children's bookAnd to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street, is near his boyhood home on Fairfield Street.[13] The family was of German descent, and Geisel and his sister Marnie experienced anti-German prejudice from other children following the outbreak of World War I in 1914.[14] Geisel was raised as aMissouri Synod Lutheran and remained in the denomination his entire life.[15]
Geisel was educated at Dartmouth College, graduating in 1925.[16] At Dartmouth, he joined theSigma Phi Epsilon fraternity[9] and the humor magazineDartmouth Jack-O-Lantern, eventually rising to the rank of editor-in-chief.[9] While at Dartmouth, he was caught drinkinggin with nine friends in his room.[17] At the time, the possession and consumption of alcohol was illegal underProhibition laws, which remained in place between 1920 and 1933. As a result of this infraction, DeanCraven Laycock insisted that Geisel resign from all extracurricular activities, including theJack-O-Lantern.[18] To continue working on the magazine without the administration's knowledge, Geisel began signing his work with the pen name "Seuss". He was encouraged in his writing by professor of rhetoric W. Benfield Pressey, whom he described as his "big inspiration for writing" at Dartmouth.[19]
Upon graduating from Dartmouth, he entered Lincoln College, Oxford, intending to earn aDoctor of Philosophy (D.Phil.) in English literature.[20][21] At Oxford, he met his future wifeHelen Palmer, who encouraged him to give up becoming an English teacher in favor of pursuing drawing as a career.[20] She later recalled that "Ted's notebooks were always filled with these fabulous animals. So I set to work diverting him; here was a man who could draw such pictures; he should be earning a living doing that."[20]
Early career
An ad forFlit drawn by Dr. Seuss, appearing in theNew Yorker issue of July 14, 1928.
Geisel left Oxford without earning a degree and returned to the United States in February 1927,[22] where he immediately began submitting writings and drawings to magazines, book publishers, and advertising agencies.[23] Making use of his time in Europe, he pitched a series of cartoons calledEminent Europeans toLife magazine, but the magazine passed on it. His first nationally published cartoon appeared in the July 16, 1927, issue ofThe Saturday Evening Post. This single $25 sale encouraged Geisel to move from Springfield to New York City.[24] Later that year, Geisel accepted a job as writer and illustrator at the humor magazineJudge, and he felt financially stable enough to marry Palmer.[25] His first cartoon forJudge appeared on October 22, 1927, and Geisel and Palmer were married on November 29. Geisel's first work signed "Dr. Seuss" was published inJudge about six months after he started working there.[26]
In early 1928, one of Geisel's cartoons forJudge mentionedFlit, a common bug spray at the time manufactured byStandard Oil of New Jersey.[27] According to Geisel, the wife of an advertising executive in charge of advertising Flit saw Geisel's cartoon at a hairdresser's and urged her husband to sign him.[28] Geisel's first Flit ad appeared on May 31, 1928, and the campaign continued sporadically until 1941. The campaign's catchphrase "Quick, Henry, the Flit!" became a part of popular culture. It spawned a song and was used as a punch line for comedians such asFred Allen andJack Benny. As Geisel gained fame for the Flit campaign, his work was in demand and began to appear regularly in magazines such asLife,Liberty andVanity Fair.[29]
The money Geisel earned from his advertising work and magazine submissions made him wealthier than even his most successful Dartmouth classmates.[29] The increased income allowed the Geisels to move to better quarters and to socialize in higher social circles.[30] They became friends with the wealthy family of bankerFrank A. Vanderlip. They also traveled extensively: by 1936, Geisel and his wife had visited 30 countries together. They did not have children, neither kept regular office hours, and they had ample money. Geisel also felt that traveling helped his creativity.[31]
Geisel's success with the Flit campaign led to more advertising work, including for other Standard Oil products like Essomarine boat fuel and Essolube Motor Oil and for other companies like theFord Motor Company,NBC Radio Network, andHolly Sugar.[32] His first foray into books,Boners, a collection of children's sayings that he illustrated, was published byViking Press in 1931. It toppedThe New York Times non-fiction bestseller list and led to a sequel,More Boners, published the same year. Encouraged by the books' sales and positive critical reception, Geisel wrote and illustrated anABC book featuring "very strange animals" that failed to interest publishers.[33]
In 1936, Geisel and his wife were returning from an ocean voyage to Europe when the rhythm of the ship's engines inspired the poem that became his first children's book:And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street.[34] Based on Geisel's varied accounts, the book was rejected by between 20 and 43 publishers.[35][36] According to Geisel, he was walking home to burn the manuscript when a chance encounter with an old Dartmouth classmate led to its publication byVanguard Press.[37] Geisel wrote four more books before the US entered World War II. This includedThe 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins in 1938, as well asThe King's Stilts andThe Seven Lady Godivas in 1939, all of which were in prose, atypically for him. This was followed byHorton Hatches the Egg in 1940, in which Geisel returned to the use of verse.
World War II–era work
"The Goldbrick", Private Snafu episode written by Seuss, 1943
As World War II began, Geisel turned to political cartoons, drawing over 400 in two years as editorial cartoonist for the left-leaning New York City daily newspaper,PM.[38] Geisel's political cartoons, later published inDr. Seuss Goes to War, denouncedAdolf Hitler andBenito Mussolini and were highly critical of non-interventionists ("isolationists"), such asCharles Lindbergh, who opposed US entry into the war.[39] One cartoon[40] depictedJapanese Americans being handed TNT in anticipation of a "signal from home", while other cartoons deplored the racism at home againstJews and blacks that harmed the war effort.[41][42] His cartoons were strongly supportive ofPresident Roosevelt's handling of the war, combining the usual exhortations to ration and contribute to the war effort with frequent attacks on Congress[43] (especially theRepublican Party),[44] parts of the press (such as theNew York Daily News,Chicago Tribune andWashington Times-Herald),[45] and others for criticism of Roosevelt, criticism of aid to the Soviet Union,[46][47] investigation of suspected Communists,[48] and other offences that he depicted as leading to disunity and helping the Nazis, intentionally or inadvertently.
After the war, Geisel and his wife moved to theLa Jolla community ofSan Diego, California,[52][53] where he returned to writing children's books. He published most of his books throughRandom House in North America andWilliam Collins, Sons (laterHarperCollins) internationally. He wrote many, including such favorites asIf I Ran the Zoo (1950),Horton Hears a Who! (1955),If I Ran the Circus (1956),The Cat in the Hat (1957),How the Grinch Stole Christmas! (1957), andGreen Eggs and Ham (1960). He received numerous awards throughout his career, but he won neither theCaldecott Medal nor theNewbery Medal. Three of his titles from this period were, however, chosen as Caldecott runners-up (now referred to as Caldecott Honor books):McElligot's Pool (1947),Bartholomew and the Oobleck (1949), andIf I Ran the Zoo (1950). Dr. Seuss also wrote themusical andfantasy filmThe 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T., which was released in 1953. The movie was a critical and financial failure, and Geisel never attempted another feature film.[citation needed] During the 1950s, he also published a number of illustrated short stories, mostly inRedbook magazine. Some of these were later collected (in volumes such asThe Sneetches and Other Stories) or reworked into independent books (If I Ran the Zoo). A number have never been reprinted since their original appearances.
In May 1954,Life published a report onilliteracy among school children which concluded that children were not learning to read because their books were boring. William Ellsworth Spaulding was the director of the education division atHoughton Mifflin (he later became its chairman), and he compiled a list of 348 words that he felt were important for first-graders to recognize. He asked Geisel to cut the list to 250 words and to write a book using only those words.[54] Spaulding challenged Geisel to "bring back a book children can't put down".[55] Nine months later, Geisel completedThe Cat in the Hat, using 236 of the words given to him. It retained the drawing style, verse rhythms, and all the imaginative power of Geisel's earlier works but, because of its simplified vocabulary, it could be read by beginning readers.The Cat in the Hat and subsequent books written for young children achieved significant international success and they remain very popular today. For example, in 2009,Green Eggs and Ham sold 540,000 copies,The Cat in the Hat sold 452,000 copies, andOne Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish (1960) sold 409,000 copies—all outselling the majority of newly published children's books.[56]
Geisel went on to write many other children's books, both in his new simplified-vocabulary manner (sold asBeginner Books) and in his older, more elaborate style.
Creator and fancier of fanciful beasts, your affinity for flying elephants and man-eating mosquitoes makes us rejoice you were not around to be Director of Admissions on Mr. Noah's ark. But our rejoicing in your career is far more positive: as author and artist you singlehandedly have stood as St. George between a generation of exhausted parents and the demon dragon of unexhausted children on a rainy day. There was an inimitable wriggle in your work long before you became a producer of motion pictures and animated cartoons and, as always with the best of humor, behind the fun there has been intelligence, kindness, and a feel for humankind. An Academy Award winner and holder of the Legion of Merit for war film work, you have stood these many years in the academic shadow of your learned friend Dr. Seuss; and because we are sure the time has come when the good doctor would want you to walk by his side as a full equal and because your College delights to acknowledge the distinction of a loyal son, Dartmouth confers on you her Doctorate of Humane Letters.[57]
Geisel joked that he would now have to sign "Dr. Dr. Seuss".[58] His wife was ill at the time, so he delayed accepting it until June 1956.[59]
Dr. Seuss signing books, 1974
Geisel's wife Helen had a long struggle with illnesses. On October 23, 1967, Helen died by suicide. On August 5, 1968, Geisel marriedAudrey Dimond with whom he had reportedly been having an affair.[60] Although he devoted most of his life to writing children's books, Geisel had no children of his own, saying of children: "You have 'em; I'll entertain 'em."[60] Audrey added that Geisel "lived his whole life without children and he was very happy without children."[60] Audrey oversaw Geisel's estate until her death on December 19, 2018, at the age of 97.[61]
Geisel was awarded an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters (L.H.D.) fromWhittier College in 1980.[62] He also received theLaura Ingalls Wilder Medal from theprofessional children's librarians in 1980, recognizing his "substantial and lasting contributions to children's literature". At the time, it was awarded every five years.[63][non-primary source needed] He won aspecial Pulitzer Prize in 1984 citing his "contribution over nearly half a century to the education and enjoyment of America's children and their parents".[64][non-primary source needed]. In 1985, Geisel received an Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from Princeton University for showing children "the way to the adult world, as he shows adults the way to the child".[65][66]
Illness, death, and posthumous honors
Bronze statue of Dr. Seuss and his character The Cat in the Hat outsideGeisel Library in San Diego
Geisel died ofcancer on September 24, 1991, at his home in the La Jolla community of San Diego at the age of 87.[20][67] His ashes were scattered in the Pacific Ocean. On December 1, 1995, four years after his death,University of California, San Diego's University Library Building was renamedGeisel Library in honor of Geisel and Audrey for the generous contributions that they made to the library and their devotion to improving literacy.[68]
In 2012, acrater on the planet Mercury was named after Geisel.[74]
Pen names
Geisel's most famous pen name is regularly pronounced/suːs/,[3] ananglicized pronunciation of his German name (the standard German pronunciation isGerman pronunciation:[ˈzɔʏ̯s]). He himself noted that it rhymed with "voice" (his own pronunciation being/sɔɪs/). Alexander Laing, one of his collaborators on theDartmouth Jack-O-Lantern,[75] wrote of it:
You're wrong as the deuce And you shouldn't rejoice If you're calling him Seuss. He pronounces it Soice[76] (or Zoice)[77]
Geisel switched to the anglicized pronunciation because it "evoked a figure advantageous for an author of children's books to be associated with—Mother Goose"[55] and because most people used this pronunciation. He added the "Doctor (abbreviated Dr.)" to his pen name because his father had always wanted him to practice medicine.[78]
For books that Geisel wrote and others illustrated, he used the pen name "Theo LeSieg", starting withTen Apples Up On Top published in 1961. "LeSieg" is "Geisel" spelled backward.[79] Geisel also published one book under the name Rosetta Stone, 1975'sBecause a Little Bug Went Ka-Choo!!, a collaboration withMichael K. Frith. Frith and Geisel chose the name in honor of Geisel's second wife Audrey, whose maiden name was Stone.[80]
Geisel was a liberalDemocrat and a supporter of PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt and theNew Deal.[81] His early political cartoons show a passionate opposition to fascism, and he urged action against it both before and after the U.S. entered World War II.[82] His cartoons portrayed the fear of communism as overstated, finding greater threats in theHouse Committee on Unamerican Activities and those who threatened to cut the U.S.'s "life line"[47] to the USSR and Stalin, whom he once depicted as aporter carrying "our war load".[46]
Dr. Seuss 1942 cartoon with the caption 'Waiting for the Signal from Home'
Geisel supported theinternment of Japanese Americans during World War II in order to prevent possible sabotage.[83] Geisel explained his position:
But right now, when the Japs are planting their hatchets in our skulls, it seems like a hell of a time for us to smile and warble: "Brothers!" It is a rather flabby battle cry. If we want to win, we've got to kill Japs, whether it depressesJohn Haynes Holmes or not. We can get palsy-walsy afterward with those that are left.[84]
After the war, Geisel overcame his feelings of animosity andre-examined his view, using his bookHorton Hears a Who! (1954) as anallegory for the American post-waroccupation of Japan, as well as dedicating the book to a Japanese friend.[85][86]
Geisel converted a copy of one of his famous children's books,Marvin K. Mooney Will You Please Go Now!, into apolemic shortly before the end of the 1972–1974Watergate scandal, in which U.S. presidentRichard Nixon resigned, by replacing the name of the main character everywhere that it occurred.[87] "Richard M. Nixon, Will You Please Go Now!" was published in major newspapers through thecolumn of his friendArt Buchwald.[87]
The line "a person's a person, no matter how small" fromHorton Hears a Who! has been used widely as a slogan by thepro-life movement in the United States. Geisel and later his widow Audrey objected to this use; according to her attorney, "She doesn't like people to hijack Dr. Seuss characters or material to front their own points of view."[88] In the 1980s, Geisel threatened to sue an anti-abortion group for using this phrase on their stationery, according to his biographer, causing them to remove it.[89] The attorney says he never discussed abortion with either of them,[88] and the biographer says Geisel never expressed a public opinion on the subject.[89] After Seuss's death, Audrey gave financial support toPlanned Parenthood.[90]
In his children's books
Geisel made a point of not beginning to write his stories with a moral in mind, stating that "kids can see a moral coming a mile off." He was not against writing about issues, however; he said that "there's an inherent moral in any story",[91] and he remarked that he was "subversive as hell."[92]
Seuss's work for children has been criticized for unconscious racist themes.[94] Dr. Seuss Enterprises, the organization that owns the rights to the books, films, TV shows, stage productions, exhibitions, digital media, licensed merchandise, and other strategic partnerships, announced on March 2, 2021, that it would stop publishing and licensing six books. The publications includeAnd to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street (1937),If I Ran the Zoo (1950),McElligot's Pool (1947),On Beyond Zebra! (1955),Scrambled Eggs Super! (1953) andThe Cat's Quizzer (1976). According to the organization, the books "portray people in ways that are hurtful and wrong" and are no longer being published.[95][96]
Geisel's early artwork often employed the shaded texture of pencil drawings orwatercolors, but in his children's books of the postwar period, he generally made use of a starker medium—pen and ink—normally using just black, white, and one or two colors. His later books, such asThe Lorax, used more colors.
Geisel's style was unique—his figures are often "rounded" and somewhat droopy. This is true, for instance, of the faces ofthe Grinch andthe Cat in the Hat. Almost all his buildings and machinery were devoid of straight lines when they were drawn, even when he was representing real objects. For example,If I Ran the Circus shows a droopy hoisting crane and a droopysteam calliope.
Geisel evidently enjoyed drawing architecturally elaborate objects, and some of his motifs are identifiable with structures in his childhood home ofSpringfield, including examples such as theonion domes of itsMain Street and his family's brewery.[100] His endlessly varied but never rectilinear palaces, ramps, platforms, and free-standing stairways are among his most evocative creations. Geisel also drew complex imaginary machines, such as theAudio-Telly-O-Tally-O-Count, fromDr. Seuss's Sleep Book, or the "most peculiar machine" of Sylvester McMonkey McBean inThe Sneetches. Geisel also liked drawing outlandish arrangements of feathers or fur: for example, the 500th hat ofBartholomew Cubbins, the tail ofGertrude McFuzz, and the pet for girls who like to brush and comb, inOne Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish.
Geisel's illustrations often convey motion vividly. He was fond of a sort of "voilà" gesture in which the hand flips outward and the fingers spread slightly backward with the thumb up. This motion is done by Ish inOne Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish when he creates fish (who perform the gesture with their fins), in the introduction of the various acts ofIf I Ran the Circus, and in the introduction of the "Little Cats" inThe Cat in the Hat Comes Back. He was also fond of drawing hands with interlocked fingers, making it look as though his characters were twiddling their thumbs.
Geisel also follows thecartoon tradition of showingmotion with lines, like in the sweeping lines that accompany Sneelock's final dive inIf I Ran the Circus. Cartoon lines are also used to illustrate the action of the senses—sight, smell, and hearing—inThe Big Brag, and lines even illustrate "thought", as in the moment when the Grinch conceives his awful plan to ruin Christmas.
Geisel wrote more than 60 books over the course of his long career. Most were published under his well-known pseudonym Dr. Seuss, though he also authored more than a dozen books as Theo LeSieg and one as Rosetta Stone. His books have topped many bestseller lists, sold over 600 million copies, and been translated into more than 20 languages.[7] In 2000,Publishers Weekly compiled a list of thebest-selling children's books of all time; of the top 100 hardcover books, 16 were written by Geisel, includingGreen Eggs and Ham, at number 4,The Cat in the Hat, at number 9, andOne Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish, at number 13.[101] In the years after his death in 1991, two additional books were published based on his sketches and notes:Hooray for Diffendoofer Day! andDaisy-Head Mayzie.My Many Colored Days was originally written in 1973 but was posthumously published in 1996. In September 2011, seven stories originally published in magazines during the 1950s were released in a collection titledThe Bippolo Seed and Other Lost Stories.[102]
For most of his career, Geisel was reluctant to have his characters marketed in contexts outside of his own books. However, he did permit the creation of several animated cartoons, an art form in which he had gained experience during World War II, and he gradually relaxed his policy as he aged.
After Geisel died of cancer at the age of 87 in 1991, his widow Audrey Geisel took charge of licensing matters until her death in 2018. Since then, licensing is controlled by the nonprofit Dr. Seuss Enterprises. Audrey approved a live-action feature-film version ofHow the Grinch Stole Christmas starringJim Carrey, as well as a Seuss-themedBroadway musical calledSeussical, and both premiered in 2000. In 2003, another live-action film was released, this time an adaptation ofThe Cat in the Hat that featuredMike Myers as the title character. Audrey Geisel spoke critically of the film, especially the casting of Myers as the Cat in the Hat, and stated that she would not allow any further live-action adaptations of Geisel's books.[105] However, a first animatedCGI feature film adaptation ofHorton Hears a Who! was approved, and was eventually released on March 14, 2008, to positive reviews. A second CGI-animated feature film adaptation ofThe Lorax was released byUniversal on March 2, 2012 (on what would have been Seuss's 108th birthday). The third adaptation of Seuss's story, the CGI-animated feature film,The Grinch, was released byUniversal on November 9, 2018.
^"How to Mispronounce "Dr. Seuss"". February 6, 2013.It is true that the middle name of Theodor Geisel—'Seuss,' which was also his mother's maiden name—was pronounced 'Zoice' by the family, and by Theodor Geisel himself. So, if you are pronouncing his full given name, saying 'Zoice' instead of "Soose" would not be wrong. You'd have to explain the pronunciation to your listener, but you would be pronouncing it as the family did.
^Geisel, Theodor Seuss (2005). "Dr. Seuss Biography". In Taylor, Constance (ed.).Theodor Seuss Geisel The Early Works of Dr. Seuss. Vol. 1. Miamisburg, OH: Checker Book Publishing Group. p. 6.ISBN978-1-933160-01-6.
^Nell, Phillip (March–April 2009)."Impertient Questions".Humanities. National Endowment for the Humanities. Archived fromthe original on May 11, 2009. RetrievedJune 20, 2009.
^Nel, Philip (2007). "Children's Literature Goes to War: Dr. Seuss, P. D. Eastman, Munro Leaf, and the Private SNAFU Films (1943–46)".The Journal of Popular Culture.40 (3): 478.doi:10.1111/j.1540-5931.2007.00404.x.ISSN1540-5931.S2CID162293411.For example, Seuss's support of civil rights for African Americans appears prominently in the PM cartoons he created before joiningFort Fox.
^Mandeville Special Collections Library."Congress".Dr. Seuss Went to War: A Catalog of Political Cartoons by Dr. Seuss. UC San Diego. Archived fromthe original on May 12, 2012. RetrievedApril 10, 2012.
^Mandeville Special Collections Library."Republican Party".Dr. Seuss Went to War: A Catalog of Political Cartoons by Dr. Seuss. UC San Diego. Archived fromthe original on May 12, 2012. RetrievedApril 10, 2012.
^abMandeville Special Collections Library."February 19".Dr. Seuss Went to War: A Catalog of Political Cartoons by Dr. Seuss. UC San Diego. Archived fromthe original on April 17, 2012. RetrievedApril 10, 2012.
^abMandeville Special Collections Library."March 11".Dr. Seuss Went to War: A Catalog of Political Cartoons by Dr. Seuss. UC San Diego. Archived fromthe original on April 17, 2012. RetrievedApril 10, 2012.
^Bunzel, Peter (April 6, 1959). "The Wacky World of Dr. Seuss Delights the Child—and Adult—Readers of His Books".Life. Chicago.ISSN0024-3019.OCLC1643958.Most of Geisel's books point a moral, though he insists that he never starts with one. 'Kids,' he says, 'can see a moral coming a mile off and they gag at it. But there's an inherent moral in any story.'
^Dr. Seuss Enterprises (March 2, 2021)."Statement from Dr. Seuss Enterprises". Dr. Seuss Enterprises. RetrievedApril 11, 2023.Today, on Dr. Seuss's Birthday, Dr. Seuss Enterprises celebrates reading and also our mission of supporting all children and families with messages of hope, inspiration, inclusion, and friendship. We are committed to action. To that end, Dr. Seuss Enterprises, working with a panel of experts, including educators, reviewed our catalog of titles and made the decision last year to cease publication and licensing of the following titles: And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street, If I Ran the Zoo, McElligot's Pool, On Beyond Zebra!, Scrambled Eggs Super!, and The Cat's Quizzer. These books portray people in ways that are hurtful and wrong. Ceasing sales of these books is only part of our commitment and our broader plan to ensure Dr. Seuss Enterprises's catalog represents and supports all communities and families.
^Mensch, Betty; Freeman, Alan (1987). "Getting to Solla Sollew: The Existentialist Politics of Dr. Seuss".Tikkun. p. 30.In opposition to the conventional—indeed, hegemonic—iambic voice, his metric triplets offer the power of a more primal chant that quickly draws the reader in with relentless repetition.
Fensch, Thomas, ed. (1997).Of Sneetches and Whos and the Good Dr. Seuss: Essays on the Writings and Life of Theodor Geisel.McFarland & Company.ISBN978-0-7864-0388-2.
Geisel, Theodor (2001). Minnear, Richard (ed.).Dr. Seuss Goes to War: The World War II Editorial Cartoons of Theodor Seuss Geisel.New Press.ISBN978-1-56584-704-0.
Lamothe, Ron (2004).The Political Dr. Seuss (DVD). Terra Incognita Films. Archived fromthe original on December 26, 2008. RetrievedJanuary 3, 2009. Documentary aired on the Public Television System.
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