This article is about the population of ancient Greece. For the Armenian band, seeDorians (band). For the Mexican department store, seeDorian's. For other uses, seeDorian (disambiguation).
TheDorians (/ˈdɔːriənz/;Greek:Δωριεῖς,Dōrieîs, singularΔωριεύς,Dōrieús) were one of the four major ethnic groups into which theHellenes (or Greeks) ofClassical Greece divided themselves (along with theAeolians,Achaeans, andIonians).[1] They are almost always referred to as just "the Dorians", as they are called in the earliest literary mention of them in theOdyssey,[2] where they already can be found inhabiting the island ofCrete.
They were diverse in way of life and social organization, varying from the populous trade center of the city ofCorinth, known for its ornate style in art and architecture, to the isolationist, military state ofSparta; and yet, all Hellenes knew which localities were Dorian and which were not. Dorian states at war could more likely, but not always, count on the assistance of other Dorian states. Dorians were distinguished by theDoric Greek dialect and by characteristic social and historical traditions.
In the 5th century BC, Dorians andIonians were the two most politically important Greekethnē, whose ultimate clash resulted in thePeloponnesian War. The degree to which fifth-century Hellenes self-identified as "Ionian" or "Dorian" has itself been disputed. At one extremeÉdouard Will [fr] concludes that there was no true ethnic component in fifth-century Greek culture, in spite of anti-Dorian elements in Athenian propaganda.[3] At the other extreme John Alty reinterprets the sources to conclude that ethnicity did motivate fifth-century actions.[4] Moderns viewing these ethnic identifications through the 5th and 4th century BC literary tradition have been profoundly influenced by their own social politics. Also, according toE. N. Tigerstedt, nineteenth-century European admirers of virtues they considered "Dorian" identified themselves as "Laconophile" and found responsive parallels in the culture of their day as well; their biases contribute to the traditional modern interpretation of "Dorians".[5]
Accounts vary as to the Dorians' place of origin. One theory, widely believed in ancient times, is that they originated in the mountainous regions ofGreece, such asMacedonia andEpirus, and obscure circumstances brought them south into thePeloponnese, to certainAegean islands.
The origin of the Dorians is a multifaceted concept. In modern scholarship, the term has often meant the location of the population disseminating the Doric Greek dialect within a hypotheticalProto-Greek speaking population. The dialect is known from records of classical northwestern Greece, thePeloponnesus andCrete and some of the islands. The geographic and ethnic information found in theWest's earliest known literary work, theIliad, combined with the administrative records of the formerMycenaean states, prove to universal satisfaction that East Greek (Ionian) speakers were once dominant in the Peloponnesus but suffered a setback there and were replaced at least in official circles by West Greek (Doric) speakers. A historical event is associated with the overthrow, called anciently theReturn of the Heracleidai and by moderns theDorian Invasion.
This theory of a return or invasion presupposes that West Greek speakers resided in northwest Greece but overran the Peloponnesus replacing the East Greek there with their own dialect. No records other than Mycenaean ones are known to have existed in theBronze Age so a West Greek of that time and place can be neither proved nor disproved. West Greek speakers were in western Greece in classical times. Unlike the East Greeks, they are not associated with any evidence of displacement events. That provides circumstantial evidence that theDoric dialect disseminated among the Hellenes of northwest Greece, a highly-mountainous and somewhat-isolated region.
TheDorian invasion is a modern historical concept attempting to account for:
at least the replacement of dialects and traditions in southern Greece in pre-classical times
more generally, the distribution of the Dorians inClassical Greece
the presence of the Dorians in Greece at all
On the whole, none of the objectives has been met, but the investigations served to rule out various speculative hypotheses. Most scholars doubt that the Dorian invasion was the main cause of the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization. The source of the West Greek speakers in the Peloponnese remains unattested by any solid evidence.
Though most of the Dorians settled in the Peloponnese, they also settled onRhodes andSicily and in what is now Southern Italy. In Asia Minor existed theDorian Hexapolis (the six great Dorian cities):Halikarnassos (Halicarnassus) andKnidos (Cnidus) inAsia Minor,Kos, andLindos,Kameiros, andIalyssos on the island of Rhodes. The six cities would later become rivals with theIonian cities of Asia Minor. The Dorians also settledCrete. The origin traditions remained strong into classical times:Thucydides saw thePeloponnesian War in part as "Ionians fighting against Dorians" and reported the tradition that theSyracusans in Sicily were of Dorian descent.[6] Other such "Dorian" colonies, originally from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian islands, dotted the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to Selinus. AlsoTaras was a Spartan colony.[7]
A man's name,Dōrieus, occurs in theLinear B tablets atPylos, one of the regions later invaded and subjugated by the Dorians.[8] Pylos tablet Fn867 records it in thedative case asdo-ri-je-we,*Dōriēwei, a third- or consonant-declension noun with stem ending in w. An unattested nominative plural,*Dōriēwes, would have becomeDōrieis by loss of the w and contraction. The tablet records the grain rations issued to the servants of "religious dignitaries" celebrating a religious festival ofPotnia, the mother goddess.[9]
The nominative singular,Dōrieus, remained the same in the classical period.[10] Many Linear B names of servants were formed from their home territory or the places where they came into Mycenaean ownership.Carl Darling Buck sees the-eus suffix as very productive. One of its uses was to convert a toponym to an anthroponym; for example, Megareus, "Megarian", fromMegara.[11]ADōrieus would be from Dōris, the only classical Greek state to serve as the basis for the name of the Dorians. The state was a small one in the mountains of west central Greece. However, classicalDoris may not have been the same as Mycenaean Doris.
A number of credible etymologies by noted scholars have been proposed.Julius Pokorny derives Δωριεύς,Dōrieus from δωρίς,dōris, "woodland" (which can also mean upland).[12] Thedōri- segment is from the o-grade (eitherō oro) ofProto-Indo-European*deru-, "tree", which also gives the Homeric Δούρειος Ἵππος (Doureios Hippos, "Wooden Horse").[13] This derivation has the advantage of naming the people after their wooded, mountainous country.
A second popular derivation was given by the French linguist, Émile Boisacq, from the same root, but from Greekδόρυ (doru) 'spear-shaft' (which was made of wood); i.e., "the people of the spear" or "spearmen."[14] In this case the country would be named after the people, as in Saxony from the Saxons. However,R. S. P. Beekes doubted the validity of this derivation and asserted that no good etymology exists.[15]
It sometimes happens that different derivations of anIndo-European word exploit similar-sounding Indo-European roots. Greekdoru, "lance," is from the o-grade of Indo-European *deru, "solid," in the sense of wood. It is similar to an extended form, *dō-ro-, of*dō-, (give), as can be seen in the modern Greek imperative δώσε (dose, "give [sing.]!") appearing in Greek as δῶρον (dōron, "gift"). This is the path taken byJonathan Hall, relying on elements taken from the myth of the Return of the Herakleidai.[16]
Hall cites the tradition, based on a fragment of the poet,Tyrtaeus, that "Sparta is a divine gift granted by Zeus and Hera" to the Heracleidae. In another version,Tyndareus gives his kingdom to Heracles in gratitude for restoring him to the throne, but Heracles "asks the Spartan king to safeguard the gift until his descendants might claim it."
Hall, therefore, proposes that the Dorians are the people of the gift. They assumed the name on taking possession of Lacedaemon. Doris was subsequently named after them. Hall makes comparisons of Spartans to Hebrews as a chosen people maintaining a covenant with God and being assigned a Holy Land. To arrive at this conclusion, Hall relies on Herodotus' version of the myth (see below) that the Hellenes under Dorus did not take his name until reaching the Peloponnesus. In other versions the Heracleidae enlisted the help of their Dorian neighbors. Hall does not address the problem of the Dorians not calling Lacedaemon Doris, but assigning that name to some less holy and remoter land. Similarly, he does not mention the Dorian servant at Pylos, whose sacred gift, if such it was, was still being ruled by the Achaean Atreid family at Lacedaemon.[citation needed]
A minor, and perhaps regrettably forgotten, episode in the history of scholarship was the attempt to emphasize the etymology of Doron with the meaning of 'hand'. This in turn was connected to an interpretation of the famous lambda on Spartan shields, which was to rather stand for a hand with outstanding thumb than the initial letter of Lacedaimon.[17] Given the origin of the Spartan shield lambda legend, however, in a fragment byEupolis, an Athenian comic poet, there has been a recent attempt to suggest that a comic confusion between the letter and the hand image may yet have been intended.
Dorian social structure was characterized by a communal social structure and separation of the sexes. The lives of free men centered around military campaigns. When not abroad, men stayed in all-male residences focusing on military training until the age of 30, regardless of marital status.
Dorian women had greater freedom and economic power than women of other Greek ethnicities. Unlike other Hellenic women, Dorian women were able to own property, manage their husbands' estate, and delegate many domestic tasks to slaves.Women in ancient Sparta possessed the greatest agency and economic power, likely due to the prolonged absences of men during military campaigns.[18] Dorian women wore thepeplos, which was once common to all Hellenes. This tunic was pinned at the shoulders by brooches and had slit skirts which bared the thighs and permitted more freedom of movement than the voluminous Ionianchiton (costume).[19]
TheDoric dialect was spoken in northwest Greece, thePeloponnese,Crete, southwestAsia Minor, the southernmost islands of theAegean Sea, and the various Dorian colonies ofMagna Graecia inSouthern Italy andSicily. After the classical period, it was mainly replaced by theAttic dialect upon which theKoine or "common" Greek language of theHellenistic period was based. The main characteristic of Doric was the preservation ofProto-Indo-European[aː], long⟨α⟩, which in Attic-Ionic became[ɛː],⟨η⟩. A famous example is the valedictory phrase uttered by Spartan mothers to their sons before sending them off to war: ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς (ḕ tàn ḕ epì tâs, literally "either with it or on it": return alive with your shieldor dead upon it) would have been ἢ τὴν ἢ ἐπὶ τῆς (ḕ tḕn ḕ epì tês) in theAttic-Ionic dialect of an Athenian mother.Tsakonian, a descendant of Doric Greek, is still spoken in some parts of the southernArgolid coast of thePeloponnese, in the modern prefecture ofArcadia.[citation needed]
Culturally, in addition to their Doric dialect of Greek, Doric colonies retained their characteristicDoric calendar that revolved round a cycle of festivals, theHyacinthia and theCarneia being especially important.[7]
TheDorian mode in music also was attributed to Doric societies and was associated by classical writers with martial qualities.
TheDoric order of architecture in the tradition inherited byVitruvius included the Doric column, noted for its simplicity and strength.
The Dorians seem to have offered the central mainland cultus forHelios. The scattering of cults of the sun god inSicyon,Argos,Ermioni,Epidaurus andLaconia, and his holy livestock flocks atTaenarum, seem to suggest that the deity was considerably important in Dorian religion, compared to other parts of ancient Greece. Additionally, it may have been the Dorians to import his worship toRhodes.[20]
InGreek historiography, the Dorians are mentioned by many authors. The chief classical authors to relate their origins areHerodotus,Thucydides andPausanias. The most copious authors, however, lived in Hellenistic and Roman times, long after the main events. This apparent paradox does not necessarily discredit the later writers, who were relying on earlier works that did not survive. The customs of theSpartan state and its illustrious individuals are detailed at great length in such authors asPlutarch andDiodorus Siculus.[21]
There is a land calledCrete, in the midst of the wine-dark sea, a fair, rich land, begirt with water, and therein are many men, past counting, and ninety cities. They have not all the same speech, but their tongues are mixed. There dwellAchaeans, there great-heartednative Cretans, thereCydonians, and Dorians of waving plumes, and goodlyPelasgians.
The reference is not compatible with aDorian invasion that brought Dorians to Crete only after the fall of the Mycenaean states. In theOdyssey, Odysseus and his relatives visit those states. Two solutions are possible, either theOdyssey is anachronistic or Dorians were on Crete in Mycenaean times. The uncertain nature of the Dorian invasion defers a definitive answer until more is known about it.[23] Also, the Messenian town ofDorium is mentioned in theCatalogue of Ships. If its name comes from Dorians, it would imply there were settlements of the latter in Messenia during that time as well.
Tyrtaeus, a Spartan poet, became advisor of the Lacedaemonians in their mid-7th-century war to suppress a rebellion of theMessenians. The latter were a remnant of the Achaeans conquered "two generations before", which suggests a rise to supremacy at the end of the Dark Age rather than during and after the fall of Mycenae. The Messenian population was reduced toserfdom.[24]
Only a few fragments of Tyrtaeus' five books of martial verse survive. His is the earliest mention of the three Dorian tribes:Pamphyli, Hylleis,Dymanes. He also says:
For Cronus' Son Himself, Zeus the husband of fair-crowned Hera, hath given this city to the children of Heracles, with whom we came into the wide isle of Pelops from windy Erineus.
Erineus was a village of Doris. He helped to establish the Spartan constitution, giving the kings and elders, among other powers, the power to dismiss the assembly. He established a rigorous military training program for the young including songs and poems he wrote himself, such as the "Embateria or Songs of the Battle-Charge which are also called Enoplia or Songs-under-Arms". These were chants used to establish the timing of standard drills under arms. He stressed patriotism:
For 'tis a fair thing for a good man to fall and die fighting in the van for his native land, ... let us fight with a will for this land, and die for our children and never spare our lives.
Fifth century BC hoplite, or "heavy-armed soldier", possibly the Spartan king Leonidas, a Dorian, who died holding the pass at theBattle of Thermopylae.
Herodotus was fromHalicarnassus, a Dorian colony on the southwest coast ofAsia Minor; following the literary tradition of the times he wrote inIonic Greek, being one of the last authors to do so. He described thePersian Wars, giving a thumbnail account of the histories of the antagonists, Greeks and Persians.
Herodotus gives a general account of the events termed "the Dorian Invasion", presenting them as transfers of population. Their original home was inThessaly, central Greece.[25] He goes on to expand in mythological terms, giving some of the geographic details of the myth:[26]
1.56.2-3 And inquiring he found that the Lacedemonians and the Athenians had the pre-eminence, the first of the Dorian and the others of the Ionian race. For these were the most eminent races in ancient time, the second being a Pelasgian and the first a Hellenic race: and the one never migrated from its place in any direction, while the other was very exceedingly given to wanderings; for in the reign of Deucalion this race dwelt in Pthiotis, and in the time of Doros the son of Hellen in the land lying below Ossa and Olympos, which is called Histiaiotis; and when it was driven from Histiaiotis by the sons of Cadmos, it dwelt in Pindos and was called Makednian; and thence it moved afterwards to Dryopis, and from Dryopis it came finally to Peloponnesus, and began to be called Dorian.
1.57.1-3 What language however the Pelasgians used to speak I am not able with certainty to say. But if one must pronounce judging by those that still remain of the Pelasgians who dwelt in the city of Creston above the Tyrsenians, and who were once neighbours of the race now called Dorian, dwelling then in the land which is now called Thessaliotis, and also by those that remain of the Pelasgians who settled at Plakia and Skylake in the region of the Hellespont, who before that had been settlers with the Athenians, and of the natives of the various other towns which are really Pelasgian, though they have lost the name,—if one must pronounce judging by these, the Pelasgians used to speak a Barbarian language. If therefore all the Pelasgian race was such as these, then the Attic race, being Pelasgian, at the same time when it changed and became Hellenic, unlearnt also its language. For the people of Creston do not speak the same language with any of those who dwell about them, nor yet do the people of Phakia, but they speak the same language one as the other: and by this it is proved that they still keep unchanged the form of language which they brought with them when they migrated to these places.
1.58 As for the Hellenic race, it has used ever the same language, as I clearly perceive, since it first took its rise; but since the time when it parted off feeble at first from the Pelasgian race, setting forth from a small beginning it has increased to that great number of races which we see, and chiefly because many Barbarian races have been added to it besides. Moreover it is true, as I think, of the Pelasgian race also, that so far as it remained Barbarian it never made any great increase.
Thus, according to Herodotus, the Dorians did not name themselves after Dorus until they had reached Peloponnesus. Herodotus does not explain the contradictions of the myth; for example, how Doris, located outside the Peloponnesus, acquired its name. However, his goal, as he relates in the beginning of the first book, is only to report what he had heard from his sources without judgement. In the myth, the Achaeans displaced from the Peloponnesus gathered at Athens under a leaderIon and became identified as "Ionians".[27]
Thucydides professes little of Greece before theTrojan War except to say that it was full of barbarians and that there was no distinction between barbarians and Greeks. TheHellenes came fromPhthiotis.[32] The whole country indulged in and suffered from piracy and was not settled. After the Trojan War, "Hellas was still engaged in removing and settling."[33]
Some 60 years after the Trojan War theBoeotians were driven out ofArne by theThessalians into Boeotia and 20 years later "the Dorians and the Heraclids became masters of the Peloponnese."[33] So the lines were drawn between the Dorians and theAeolians (here Boeotians) with theIonians (former Peloponnesians).
He does explain with considerable dismay what happened to incite ethnic war after the unity between the Greek states during theBattle of Thermopylae. The Congress of Corinth, formed prior to it, "split into two sections." Athens headed one and Lacedaemon the other:[40]
For a short time the league held together, till the Lacedaemonians and Athenians quarreled, and made war upon each other with their allies, a duel into which all the Hellenes sooner or later were drawn.
He adds: "the real cause I consider to be ... the growth of the power of Athens and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon...."
In thePlatonic workLaws is mentioned that theAchaeans who fought in theTrojan War, on their return from Troy were driven out from their homes and cities by the young residents, so they migrated under a leader named Dorieus and hence they were renamed "Dorians".[41]
Now during this period of ten years, while the siege lasted, the affairs of each of the besiegers at home suffered much owing to the seditious conduct of the young men. For when the soldiers returned to their own cities and homes, these young people did not receive them fittingly and justly, but in such a way that there ensued a vast number of cases of death, slaughter, and exile. So they, being again driven out, migrated by sea; and because Dorieus was the man who then banded together the exiles, they got the new name of "Dorians", instead of "Achaeans". But as to all the events that follow this, you Lacedaemonians relate them all fully in your traditions.
TheDescription of Greece byPausanias relates that the Achaeans were driven from their lands by Dorians coming fromOeta, a mountainous region bordering onThessaly.[42] They were led byHyllus, a son ofHeracles,[43] but were defeated by the Achaeans. Under other leadership they managed to be victorious over the Achaeans and remain in the Peloponnesus, a mythic theme called "the return of theHeracleidae."[44] They had built ships atNaupactus in which to cross theGulf of Corinth.[45] This invasion is viewed by the tradition of Pausanias as a return of the Dorians to the Peloponnesus, apparently meaning a return of families ruling inAetolia and northern Greece to a land in which they had once had a share. The return is described in detail: there were "disturbances" throughout the Peloponnesus except inArcadia, and new Dorian settlers.[46] Pausanias goes on to describe the conquest and resettlement ofLaconia,Messenia,Argos and elsewhere, and the emigration from there toCrete and the coast ofAsia Minor.
Diodorus is a rich source of traditional information concerning the mythology and history of the Dorians, especially theLibrary of History. He does not make any such distinction but the fantastic nature of the earliest material marks it as mythical or legendary. The myths do attempt to justify some Dorian operations, suggesting that they were in part political.[a]
All the foreigners were forthwith expelled, and the most valiant and noble among them, under some notable leaders, were brought to Greece and other places, as some relate; the most famous of their leaders wereDanaus andCadmus. But the majority of the people descended into a country not far from Egypt, which is now calledJudaea and at that time was altogether uninhabited.
Heracles was aPerseid, a member of the ruling family of Greece. His motherAlcmene had both Perseids andPelopids in her ancestry. A princess of the realm, she received Zeus thinking he wasAmphitryon. Zeus intended his son to rule Greece but according to the rules of successionEurystheus, born slightly earlier, preempted the right. Attempts to kill Heracles as a child failed. On adulthood he was forced into the service of Eurystheus, who commanded him to perform12 labors.[48]
Heracles became a warrior without a home, wandering from place to place assisting the local rulers with various problems. He took a retinue ofArcadians with him acquiring also over time a family of grown sons, the Heraclidae. He continued this mode of life even after completing the 12 labors. The legend has it that he became involved with Achaean Sparta when the family of kingTyndareus was unseated and driven into exile by Hippocoön and his family, who in the process happened to kill the son of a friend of Heracles. The latter and his retinue assaulted Sparta, taking it back from Hippocoön. He recalled Tyndareus, set him up as a guardian regent, and instructed him to turn the kingdom over to any descendants of his that should claim it. Heracles went on with the way of life to which he had become accustomed, which was by today's standards that of a mercenary, as he was being paid for his assistance. Subsequently, he founded a colony inAetolia, then inTrachis.[citation needed]
After displacing theDryopes, he went to the assistance of the Dorians, who lived in a land called Hestiaeotis under kingAegimius and were campaigning against the numerically superiorLapithae. The Dorians promised him1⁄3 of Doris (which they did not yet possess). He asked Aegimius to keep his share of the land "in trust" until it should be claimed by a descendant. He went on to further adventures but was poisoned by his jealous wife,Deianeira. He immolated himself in full armor dressed for combat and "passed from among men into the company of the gods."[49]
Strabo,[50] who depends on the books available to him, goes on to elaborate:
Of these peoples, according toStaphylus, the Dorians occupy the part toward the east, the Cydonians the western part, the Eteo-Cretans the southern; and to these last belongs the townPraisos, where is the temple of the Dictaean Zeus; whereas the other peoples, since they were more powerful, dwelt in the plains. Now it is reasonable to suppose that the Eteo-Cretans and the Cydonians were autochthonous, and that the others were foreigners ...[51]
Beside this sole reference to Dorians in Crete, the mention of theIliad of theHeraclidTlepolemus, a warrior on the side ofAchaeans and colonist of three important Dorian cities inRhodes has been also regarded as a later interpolation.[52]
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