General location of the Donghu people, and contemporary Asian politiesc. 500 BCE | |
| Dates | 700–150 BCE |
|---|---|
| Preceded by | Upper Xiajiadian culture |
| Followed by | Xiongnu Yan Kingdom (Han dynasty) |
TheDonghu (/ˈdʊŋˌhuː/;simplified Chinese:东胡;traditional Chinese:東胡;pinyin:Dōnghú) were a tribal confederation of nomadicHu people that were first recorded from the 7th century BCE[1] and were taken over by theXiongnu in 150 BCE. They lived in northernHebei, southeasternInner Mongolia and the western part ofLiaoning,Jilin andHeilongjiang along theYan Mountains andGreater Khingan Range.[2]
TheClassical Chinese nameChinese:東胡 literally means "Eastern Barbarians".[3] The termDōnghú contrasts with the termXīhú meaning "Western barbarians" (Chinese:西胡, meaning "non-Chinese peoples in the west" andFive Barbarians 五胡 (Wǔ Hú) "five northern nomadic tribes involved in theUprising of the Five Barbarians (304–316 CE)". Hill (2009:59) translatesXīhú as "Western Hu" and notes:
The termhu 胡 was used to denote non-Han Chinese populations. It is, rather unsatisfactorily, commonly translated as 'barbarian'. While sometimes it was used in this general way to describe people of non-Han descent, and carried the same negative overtones of the English term, this was not always the case. Most frequently, it was used to denote people, usually of Caucasoid or partial Caucasoid appearance, living to the north and west of China. (2009:453)
In 307 BCE, the 胡Hú proper, encompassing both the easternDōnghú (東胡, "Eastern Hu") and the westernLinhu (林胡, "Forest Hu"), were mentioned as a non-Chinese people who were neighbors ofZhao[4][5] and skilled atmounted archery (a military tactic whichKing Wuling of Zhao would later adopt).[6] However, the termHu can also refer to a variety of different races and different ethnic groups.[7] It was used by Han Chinese to describe anyone who is not of ethnic Han Chinese descent and were considered barbarians: for example, Sima Qian also used Hu to refer to theXiongnu, who were then ruled byToumanChanyu, once expelled byQin generalMeng Tian north from theOrdos Loop, yet able to regain their territory following the Qin Empire's collapse.[6][8] All Hu workmen were famed for their skills at making bows and carts even without specialization.[9][10]
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The peoples categorized as the Five Barbarians, or "Five Hu", were theXiongnu,Jie,Xianbei,Di, andQiang.[12][13] Of these five ethnic groups, the Xiongnu and Xianbei werenomadic peoples from the northernsteppes. The ethnic identity of the Xiongnu is uncertain, but the Xianbei appear to have been Mongolic. TheJie, anotherpastoral people, may have been a branch of the Xiongnu, who may have beenYeniseian[14] orIndo-Scythian.[15] The Di and Qiang were from the highlands of western China.[12] The Qiang were predominantly herdsmen and spokeSino-Tibetan (Tibeto-Burman) languages, while the Di were farmers who may have spoken a Sino-Tibetan[16] orTurkic language.[17] The traditional explanation, going back to the second-centuryHan dynasty scholar Cui Hao 崔浩 is that the Donghu were originally located "east of theXiongnu" who were one of the "Five Barbarians" (Hú).[18] Modern Chineseapologetics suggests that "Donghu" was a transcription of anendonym and did not literally mean "Eastern Barbarian".[19]
The usual English translation ofDōnghú is "Eastern Barbarians" (e.g., Watson, di Cosmo, Pulleyblank, and Yu), and the partial translation "Eastern Hu" is occasionally used (Pulleyblank). Note that "Eastern Barbarians" is also a translation forDōngyì 東夷, which refers to "ancient peoples in eastern China, Korea, Japan, etc."[clarification needed]
ChineseSinocentrism differentiates theHuáxià華夏 "Chinese" and theYì夷 "barbarians, non-Chinese, foreigner": this is referred to as theHuá–Yì distinction. Many names besidesHu originally hadpejorative "barbarian" meanings, for instanceNanman 南蠻 ("southern barbarians") andBeidi 北狄 ("northern barbarians").Edwin G. Pulleyblank explains:
At the dawn of history we find the Chinese, self-identified by such terms as Hsia and Hua, surrounded and interspersed by other peoples with whom they were frequently in conflict and whom they typically looked down upon as inferior beings in the same way the Hellenes looked down on thebarbaroi and, indeed, as human we-groups have always looked down on their neighbors.[20]
The historian Nicola di Cosmo concludes:
We can thus reasonably say that, by the end of the fourth century B.C., the term "Hu" applied to various ethnic groups (tribes, groups of tribes, and even states) speaking different languages and generally found living scattered across a wide territory. Their fragmentation, however, could be turned, when the need arose, into a superior form of political organization (a "state"). This explains whyhu appears often preceded by a qualifier that we may take for a specific ethnic group, as with theLin Hu and the Tung Hu. Whether or not it had originally been an ethnonym, such a designation had been lost by theWarring States period.[21]
In modernStandard Chinese usagehú has lost its original meaning although it still appears in words likeèrhú 二胡 (lit. "two foreign") "Chinese two-string fiddle",hútáo 胡桃 ("foreign peach") "walnut", andhúluóbō 胡萝卜 ("foreign radish") "carrot".
%2c_ancestor_of_the_Donghu_clan%2c_Upper_Xiajiadian_culture.jpg)
The modern pronunciationDōnghú differs from theOld Chinese pronunciation, which roughly dates from the Warring States period (476–221 BCE) when Donghu was first recorded. Old Chinese reconstructions ofDōnghú include *Tûngɣâg,[23] *Tungg'o,[24] *Tewnggaɣ,[25] *Tongga,[26] and *Tôŋgâ > *Toŋgɑ.[27]William H. Baxter andLaurent Sagart (2014)[28] reconstruct theOld Chinese ancestor of胡Hú as *[g]ˤa. Recently, Christopher Atwood reconstructs a foreign ethnonym *ga, which was borrowed into Old Chinese as 胡 *gâ (>hú), while ani-suffixed derivative of *ga underlies twoMiddle Chinese transcriptions: namely,
The etymology of ethnonym *ga (> 胡 OC *gâ > Ch.hú) is unknown.[31]
As forQay,Golden (2003 & 2006) proposes several Mongolic etymologies:ɣai "trouble, misfortune, misery",χai "interjection of grief",χai "to seek",χai "to hew", albeit none compelling.[32][33]
Some dictionaries and scholars (e.g.Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat) confuse Dōnghú 東胡 withTungusic peoples,Tonggu 通古. Russian Mongolist Lydia Viktorova states that:
This is due to the insufficient amount of materials and partly due to the mistakes made. For example, the phonetic identification of the ancient people of the Donghu (Eastern Hu) with the Tungus, made at the beginning of the 19th century by Abel-Rémusat only on the principle of sound similarity between Donghu and Tungus. This led to the fact that for a long time all the descendants of the Donghu were considered the ancestors of the Tungus."[34]
This "chance similarity in modern pronunciation", writes Pulleyblank, "led to the once widely held assumption that the Eastern Hu were Tungusic in language. This is a vulgar error with no real foundation."[35]
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Among the northern ethnic groups, the Donghu were the earliest to become a civilization and the first to developbronze technology. Their culture was associated with theUpper Xiajiadian culture, characterized by the practice of agriculture and animal husbandry supplemented by handicrafts and bronze art.[39] Through the use of cavalry and bronze weaponry in warfare, the Donghu apparently dominated over theXiongnu to their west.[40][41][42][43] Although "Upper Xiajiadian" is indeed frequently attributed to the Donghu, such attribution remains uncertain given the lack of details in Chinese sources about what the Donghu were, beyond a name (Donghu, EasternHu, ie "Eastern mounted nomads") and the account of their destruction by the Xiongnu.[44]
TheShiji section on Xiongnu history first records the Donghu during the era ofDuke Wen of Jin (r. 697–628 BCE) andDuke Mu of Qin (r. c. 659–621 BCE).
At this time Qin and Jin were the most powerful states in China. Duke Wen of Jin expelled theDi barbarians and drove them into the region west of theYellow River between the Yun and Luo rivers; there they were known as the Red Di and the White Di. Shortly afterwards, Duke Mu of Qin, having obtained the services of You Yu, succeeded in getting the eight barbarian tribes of the west to submit to his authority.
Thus at this time there lived in the region west ofLong the Mianzhu, the Hunrong, and the Diyuan tribes. North of Mts. Qi and Liang and the Jing and Qi rivers lived the Yiqu, Dali, Wuzhi, and Quyuan tribes. North of Jin were the Linhu (Forest Barbarians) and the Loufan, while north ofYan lived the Donghu (Eastern Barbarians) andShanrong (Mountain Barbarians), each of them with their own chieftains. From time to time they would have gatherings of a hundred or so men, but no one tribe was capable of unifying the others under a single rule.[1]
In 307 BCEKing Wuling of Zhao, instituted a military reform called "Hu clothes, Cavalry archery" after having been repeatedly harassed earlier in his reign by Donghu horse-archers. In 300 BCEQin Kai, a general taken hostage from thestate of Yan (whose capital "Ji" is nowBeijing), defeated the Donghu after having gained the esteem of the Donghu and learning their battle tactics. In 273 BCE during the reign ofKing Huiwen, Zhao defeated the Donghu. In 265 BCELi Mu of theZhao state, one of the four most prominent generals of theWarring States period, defeated the Donghu after stopping a major Xiongnu invasion. By the time of the rule of the Xiongnu chanyuTouman (c. 220 BCE to 209 BCE), "the Donghu were very powerful and theYuezhi were likewise flourishing."[45] When the Xiongnu crown princeModu Chanyu killed his father Touman in 209 BCE and took the title ofchanyu, the Donghu thought that Modu feared them, and they started to ask for tribute from the Xiongnu that included his best horses and even a consort of Modu's. Modu conceded. Not satisfied with this they asked for some of the Xiongnu territories. This enraged Modu attacked and defeated them, killing their ruler, taking his subjects prisoner, and seizing their livestock, before turning west to attack and defeat the Yuezhi.[46] This caused disintegration in the Donghu federation. Thereafter, theWuhuan (southern Donghu) moved to Mount Wuhuan and engaged in continuous warfare with the Xiongnu on the west and China on the south. As they became worn out from the lengthy battles, theXianbei (northern Donghu) moved northward to Mount Xianbei to preserve their strength. When the Han dynasty vassal kingLu Wan defected to the Xiongnu in 195 BCE he was made King of Donghu (東胡王) by the Xiongnu. This Kingdom of Donghu fiefdom lasted until 144 BCE when Lu Wan's grandson Lu Tazhi defected back to the Han dynasty. The Wuhuan inhabitants of the fiefdom continued as vassals of the Xiongnu until 121 BCE. Gradually the name Donghu stopped being used. In the 1st century, the Xianbei defeated the Wuhuan and northern Xiongnu, and developed into a powerful state under the leadership of their electedKhan, Tanshihuai.[47][48][49][50]
TheBook of Jin, published in 648, linked the Donghu and theirXianbei descendants to theYouxiong lineage (有熊氏),[51] associated with theYellow Emperor[52] and possibly named after the Yellow Emperor's "hereditary principality".[53] However, many non-Han Chinese rulers were claimed to be the Yellow Emperor's descendants, for individual and national prestige.[54][55]
Chinese historianYu Ying-shih describes the Donghu.
The Tung-hu peoples were probably a tribal federation founded by a number of nomadic peoples, including the Wu-huan and Hsien-pi. After its conquest of the Hsiung-nu, the federation apparently ceased to exist. Throughout the Han period, no trace can be found of activities of the Tung-hu as a political entity.[18]
Di Cosmo says the Chinese considered theHu as "a new type of foreigner", and believes, "This term, whatever its origin, soon came to indicate an 'anthropological type' rather than a specific group or tribe, which the records allow us to identify as early steppe nomads. The Hu were the source of the introduction of cavalry in China."[56]
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Pulleyblank citesPaul Pelliot that the Donghu, Xianbei, and Wuhuan were "proto-Mongols".
The Eastern Hu, mentioned in theShih-chi along with the Woods Hu and the Lou-fan as barbarians to the north of Chao in the fourth century B.C., appear again as one of the first peoples whom the Hsiung-nu conquered in establishing their empire. Toward the end of the Former Han, as the Hsiung-nu empire was weakening through internal dissension, the Eastern Hu became rebellious. From then on they played an increasingly prominent role in Chinese frontier strategy as a force to play off against the Hsiung-nu. Two major divisions are distinguished, the Hsien-pei to the north and the Wu-huan to the south. By the end of the first century B.C. these more specific names had supplanted the older generic term.[58]
Pulleyblank also writes that although
there is now archaeological evidence of the spread of pastoral nomadism based on horse riding from Central Asia into Mongolia and farther east in the first half of the first millennium BCE, as far as we have evidence it did not impinge on Chinese consciousness until the northward push of the state of Zhao 趙 to the edge of the steppe in present Shanxi province shortly before the end of the fifth century B.C.E. brought them into contact with a new type of horse-riding “barbarian” that they called Hu 胡. … In Han times the term Hu was applied to steppe nomads in general but especially to the Xiongnu who had become the dominant power in the steppe. Earlier it had referred to a specific proto-Mongolian people, now differentiated as the Eastern Hu 東胡, from whom the Xianbei 鮮卑 and the Wuhuan 烏桓 later emerged.[59]
The Donghu later divided into theWuhuan in theYan Mountains[60] and theXianbei in theGreater Khingan Range:[61][62] the Wuhuan were ancestors of theKumo Xi,[63][60] while the Xianbei were ancestors of theKhitan[64][62] and theMongols.[65][66] Another people of Donghu descent were theRouran (Proto-Mongolic tribe).[67][68]
In the past, scholars such asFan Zuoguai andHan Feimu mistakenly[why?] thought thatJurchens (ancestors of theManchus) descended from the Donghu.[69] In 1980, Russian scholar Lydia Leonidovna Viktorova criticized the 19th century phonetic identification of the ancient people of the Donghu (Eastern Hu) with the Tungus.[34]
A genetic study published in theAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology detected the paternalhaplogroup C2b1a1b among the Xianbei and Rouran. This lineage has also been found among the Donghu. Haplogroup C2b1a1b has a high frequency among Mongols.[70]
The ethnic composition of the Donghu people remains unclear. It is suggested that the majority was ofMongolic andTungusic origins, and that they stood in contact with other Steppe nomadic entities, such as theXiongnu and theSaka people further West. The Donghu were ethnically related to theXianbei,Jinggouzi andRouran, which are described as eitherProto-Mongols or Para-Mongols.[72][73][74]
While often being referred as tribal confederation, they may rather be an only loosely united group of nomadic tribes "that occupied territories between the Mongolian steppes and the Great Xing'an Mountains of China".[75]
A genetic study published in theAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology in August 2018 detected the paternalhaplogroup C2b1a1b among theXianbei andRouran. This lineage has also been found among remains associated with the Donghu people.[76] The authors of the study suggested that haplogroup C2b1a1b was an important lineage among the Donghu, and that the Rouran were paternally descended from the Xianbei and Donghu. Haplogroup C2b1a1b has a high frequency amongMongols.[70]
Genetic data support a close genetic relationship between the Donghu, the ancient Jinggouzi people, and the Xianbei. The closest modern extant people to the historical Donghu are theOroqen people of Northern China.[73]
The most typical early form of metal mask was a combination of sackcloth, copper clasps and mussels found in the Zhoujiadi cemetery in Aohan Banner, Inner Mongolia, of the Xiajiadian upper culture (Yang and Gu 1984). (...) Besides, both Zhoujiadi M45 and Iheura M2 can be identified as remains of the Donghu clan, with Zhoujiadi M45 considered to be an ancestor of the Donghu clan...
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{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal= (help)Это отчасти связано с недостаточным количеством материалов, отчасти - с допущенными ошибками. Например, фонетическое отождествление древнего народа дунху (восточные ху) с тунгусами, сделанное в начале XIX в. Абелем Ремюса лишь на принципе звукового сходства дунху - тунгус, привело к тому, что всех потомков дунху долгое время считали предками тунгусов.
The study of Upper Xiaiadianis hampered by the small number of well-reported excavations, the conditions of the tombs themselves, and by confusion concerning the nature of the culture and its dating. In general，"Upper Xiajiadian" is considered to refer to a nomadic culture，frequently attributed to the Donghu.(p.4) The attribution of any non-Chinese culture to a name provided by early Chinese texts is risky. Unless material evidence appears to coincide with written evidence (assuming there is indeed written evidence, other than the notation of a name), we cannot be sure such attribution is justified. In the case of the Donghu, we have scant textual evidence.(p.5) In any case, attributing Upper Xiajiadian to the Donghu compounds the problems the material remains themselves present. At this time，I see no benefit in making any specific attribution (p.6)
上述石雕像为胡人形象，对此学者们均无异议。胡人是我国古代中原汉人对北方和西方异族的通称。在汉人的认知领域，胡人的概念比较模糊，大致也有个变化的过程。先秦时的胡，专指匈奴，汉晋时期泛指匈奴、鲜卑、羯、氐、羌，"胡人"的范围已由北方逐渐扩大到西部族群。
"The above-mentioned stone statues are images of Hu people, and scholars have no objection to this. Hu people are the general name given by the Han people in the Central Plains of our country to the foreign ethnic groups in the north and west in ancient China. In the cognitive field of Han people, the concept of Hu people is relatively vague, and it has a tendency to change with time. The Hu in the pre-Qin period refers specifically to theXiongnu, but in the Han and Jin dynasties generally Hu refers to theXiongnu,Xianbei,Jie,Di, andQiang. The scope of "Hu people" also expanded from the north to the west."
山东发现的这种高鼻深目、头戴尖帽的胡人形象，很可能是与斯基泰人文化有关的某些白种民族，并推测可能是月氏或早于月氏的民族
"The image of a barbarian with a high nose, deep eyes, and a pointed hat found in Shandong is likely to be some white ethnic group related to theScythian culture, it is also speculated that it may be theYuezhi or an ethnic group earlier than the Yuezhi."
Fan and Han noted that the Jurchens were of the Eastern Hu race (Donghuzu)
Other evidence to support our argument is that Western, Asian-style architectural elements such as Hu statue columns and arched doorways (Figure 35) indicate the influence of foreign styles in some of the large, high-grade Han pictorial stone tombs currently found in this region, such as the afore-mentioned Wu Baizhuang 吳白莊 tomb in Linyi 臨 沂, Shandong.
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