 Döner kebab | |
| Course | Snack or main course |
|---|---|
| Place of origin | Ottoman Empire |
| Region or state | Turkey |
| Serving temperature | Hot |
| Main ingredients | Lamb,beef,chicken, or (rarely)pork |
| Variations | İskender,shawarma,gyros,al pastor |
Doner kebab ordöner kebab[a] is aTurkish dish made of meat cooked on a verticalrotisserie.[1] Seasoned meat stacked in the shape of an inverted cone is turned slowly on the rotisserie, next to a vertical cooking element. The operator uses a knife to slice thin shavings from the outer layer of the meat as it cooks. The vertical rotisserie was invented in the 19th-centuryOttoman Empire, and dishes such as the Arabshawarma, Greekgyros, Canadiandonair, and Mexicanal pastor are derived from this.[2][3][4]
The modern sandwich variant of doner kebab originated and was popularized in 1970sWest Berlin byTurkish immigrants.[5][6][7] This was recognized by the Berlin-based Association of Turkish Döner Manufacturers in Europe in 2011.[8]
The sliced meat of a doner kebab may be served on a plate with various accompaniments, stuffed into apita or other type of bread as a sandwich, or wrapped in a thinflatbread such aslavash orfilo, known as adürüm (literally meaningroll orwrap inTurkish).Kadir Nurman in the early 1970s introduced the sandwich or wrap form, which has become popular around the world as afast food dish sold bykebab shops, and is often called simply a "kebab".[9] The sandwich generally contains salad or vegetables, which may include tomato; lettuce; cabbage; onion withsumac; fresh orpickled cucumber orchili; and various types of sauces.[10][11]
In the Ottoman Empire, at least as far back as the 17th century, stacks of seasoned sliced meat were cooked on a horizontal rotisserie, similar to thecağ kebab.[12] The vertical rotisserie was introduced no later than the mid-19th century.[12][2][13] The town ofBursa, in modern-day Turkey, is often considered the birthplace of the vertically roasted doner kebab.[14] According to Yavuz İskenderoğlu, his grandfatherİskender Efendi as a child in 1850s Bursa had the idea of roasting the lamb at his father's restaurant vertically rather than horizontally; it was a success, and some years later became known asdoner kebap.[15][non-primary source needed] However, he may have been preceded by Hamdi Usta fromKastamonu around 1830.[16][17][18]
A version popular in theArab world became known asshawarma. By at least the 1930s, it had been brought overseas, and was sold in restaurants in Mexico by Lebanese immigrants.[3] The Greek variation was likely brought to Greece proper byGreek refugees in the 1920s, due to thepopulation exchange between Greece and Turkey, later transforming intogyros.[19][20]
It was not until a century after its invention that doner kebab was introduced and popularized in Istanbul, most famously byBeyti Güler. His restaurant, first opened in 1945, was soon discovered by journalists and began serving doner and otherkebab dishes to kings, prime ministers, film stars and celebrities.[21] It has been sold in sandwich form in Istanbul since at least the mid-1960s.[18]
The doner kebab and its derivatives served in a sandwich form as "fast food" came to worldwide prominence in the mid- to late 20th century. The first doner kebab shop in London opened in 1966[22] and such shops were a familiar sight in provincial cities by the late 1970s. Gyros was already popular in Greece and New York City in 1971.[23][24] A Greek-Canadian variation, thedonair, was introduced in 1972, eventually becoming the official food ofHalifax, and spreading across the country.[25][26] By the 1960s, thetaco al pastor in Mexico had evolved from the shawarma.[3]
In Germany, the doner kebab was popularized by Turkishguest workers inBerlin in the early 1970s.[27] The dish developed there from its original form into a distinctive style of sandwich with abundant salad, vegetables, and sauces, sold in large portions at affordable prices. It would soon become one of the top-selling fast food andstreet food dishes in Germany and much of Europe, and popular around the world.[28]
In the English name "doner kebab", the worddoner isborrowed from the Turkishdöner kebap, with the Turkish letterö usuallyanglicized as "o",[29] though "döner kebab" is an alternative spelling in English.[30] The wordkebab is used, which comes to English from theArabic:كَبَاب (kabāb), partly throughUrdu,Persian andTurkish; it may refer to a number of differentkebab dishes made with roasted or grilled meat. Althoughkebab has been used in English since the late 17th century,doner/döner kebab is known only from the mid-20th century or later.[30] The Turkish worddöner comes fromdönmek ('to turn, to rotate'), so the Turkish namedöner kebap literally means'rotating roast'.[31] InGerman, it is spelledDöner Kebab; the sandwich is often calledein Döner. Particularly inBritish English, a doner kebab sandwich may be referred to simply as "a kebab".[32] A Canadian variation isdonair. InGreek, it was originally calleddöner (Greek:ντονέρ) but later came to be known asgyros, fromγύρος ('turn'), acalque of the Turkish name.[33] The Arabic nameشاورما (shāwarmā) derives from another Turkish word,çevirme, also meaning'turning'. Persians refer to it askebab torki.[34]
There are many variations ofdoner inTurkey:
InAzerbaijan, doner kebab (Azerbaijani:dönər), served similarly to the European style of sandwich wrapped inlavaş (flatbread) or inçörәk (bread, includingtandoor bread), is one of the most widespread fast foods. It is usually made withәt (meat, essentiallylamb or mutton), but sometimestoyuq (chicken).[40][41][42]
In Japan, doner kebabs are now common, especially in Tokyo. They are predominantly made of chicken but occasionally beef, and called simply "kebab". The toppings include shredded lettuce or cabbage, sliced tomato, and usually a choice of sauces such asThousand Island, spicy, and garlic.[43]
Doner kebab is increasingly becoming popular inVietnam, mostly because of Vietnamese who used to live in Germany and introduced it to their homeland. ThroughoutHanoi andHo Chi Minh City many doner kebab stalls can be found.Bánh mỳ Döner Kebab, the Vietnamese version of the doner kebab, has some fundamental differences with the original doner kebab. First of all, pork is used instead of beef and lamb. Second, the meat is topped with sour vegetables andchili sauce.[44][45]
In 2022, Turkey applied for döner to be granted EUtraditional speciality guaranteed status, which protects the recipe rather than its geographic origin.[46][47] Beef would be required to come from cattle that is at least 16 months old, be marinated with specific amounts of animal fat, yogurt or milk, onion, salt, and thyme, as well as black, red and white peppers, and sliced off the vertical spit into pieces that are 3 to 5 millimeters thick.[48] The GermanFederal Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Regional Identity objected to the application since proposals differ from typical German preparations, and vegetables, turkey, and some veal kebabs would apparently no longer be allowed.
Doner kebab shops can be found in all cities acrossAustria. Kebabs (often referred to as "Döner") outsell burgers or the traditional Würstel (sausage).[49]
In Belgium, the first doner kebabs were already served in the 1970s, brought by immigrants to the country. In the mining region, mainly beef or variants with pieces of chicken was used for the doner kebab. Doner kebabs with mutton and lamb were more likely to be found in other regions of Belgium.[citation needed]
In Finland, doner kebabs gained popularity after the 90s, when Turkish and other Middle-Eastern immigrants started to arrive in the country in considerable numbers, opening restaurants and importing their traditional dishes. Kebabs are generally seen as fast food, often served by late-nightpizzerias.[50]
Turkish immigrants also brought doner kebab to France, where it became especially popular with the country's large North African population, in the 1980s.[51] A typicalkebab consists of bread stuffed with doner meat shavings, lettuce, sliced tomato and onions, with a choice of sauce including sauce blanche, a mayonnaise-yogurt sauce. Kebabs are usually served with french fries, often stuffed into the bread itself. In Paris, this variation is calledsandwich grec ("Greek sandwich").[52][53] Doner kebab is the third most popular fast food in France, next to hamburgers and pizza, with more than 10,000 kebab shops selling about 300 million a year.[51]
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In Germany, the earliest claim to the introduction of Turkish doner kebab dates to 1969, when Bursa native Nevzat Salim and his father started to sell Iskender Kebap inReutlingen.[54] However, the Association of Turkish Döner Producers in Europe (ATDID) connects the wide popularization of the dish to the stand of Turkishguest workerKadir Nurman atWest Berlin'sZoo Station in 1972, which helped establish the doner kebab sandwich as a fast food option.[54][27] Although the claims of multiple persons to have "invented" the doner may be hard to prove,[55] the further development of modern doner sandwich is connected to the city of Berlin.[56]
The doner kebap as it was first served in Berlin contained only meat, onions and a bit of salad.[57] Over time, it developed into a dish with abundant salad, vegetables, and a selection of sauces to choose from. Even orders placed in the Turkish language in Berlin will ask for the hot sauce using the German wordscharf, flagging the hybrid nature of the Berlin style of doner kebap.[58]: 58 This variation served with pita bread has influenced the style of doner kebap in Germany and in other nations. A 2007 survey showed that many people consider the doner kebab to be the most characteristic food of Berlin.[58]: 54
Annual sales of doner kebabs in Germany amounted to €2.5 billion in 2010.[59] Beef or veal, and chicken, are widely used instead of the more expensive lamb. Turkey(Truthahn) andvegetarian versions have become increasingly popular. Common variations include theDöner-Teller, ("doner plate") in which the ingredients are served loose on a plate rather than as a sandwich, and theDöner-Box, in which they are served in a box layered on top of French fries.
Tarkan Taşyumruk, president of the Association of Turkish Döner Producers in Europe (ATDID), provided information in 2010 that, every day, more than 400 tonnes of doner kebab meat is produced in Germany by around 350 firms. At the same ATDID fair, Taşyumruk stated: "Annual sales in Germany amount to €2.5 billion. That shows we are one of the biggest fast-foods in Germany." In many cities throughout Germany, doner kebabs are at least as popular ashamburgers orsausages, especially with young people.[59]
In 2011 there were over 16,000 establishments selling doner kebabs in Germany, with yearly sales of €3.5 billion.[60]
Kapsalon is aDutch food item consisting of French fries topped with doner or shawarma meat, garlic sauce, and a layer ofgouda cheese, baked orbroiled until melted, and then subsequently covered with a layer of dressed salad greens and more sauce. The dish is usually served as fast food in a disposable metal tray. The termkapsalon means "hairdressing salon" or "barbershop" inDutch, alluding to hairdresser Nathaniel Gomes who originated the dish when he requested his localkebab shop inRotterdam to prepare it for him.[61]
The doner kebab with salad and sauce is a very popular dish in the United Kingdom, especially after a night out.[55] The meat is sometimes sold on its own, but more commonly with chips (fries), innaan bread or inpita bread.German Doner Kebab is a Glasgow-based chain operating 100 restaurants in the UK, which specialises in the dish.[62]
A variation known asdonair was introduced inHalifax, Nova Scotia, in the early 1970s.[25] There are competing claims about the origin, but according to Halifax resident Leo Gamoulakos, his father, Greek immigrant Peter Gamoulakos, started selling Greek-style gyros at Velos Pizza in the Halifax suburb ofBedford. It did not catch on with the public, so in 1972[25] he modified the customary pork and lamb recipe by using spiced ground beef, Lebanese flatbread, and inventing the distinctive sweetdonair sauce made with condensed milk, vinegar, sugar, and garlic. He called it by thedoner name rather thangyros, but it came to be pronounced, and spelled, asdonair.[63][64][65] In 1973 Gamoulakos opened the firstKing of Donair restaurant on Quinpool Road in Halifax.[66] In 2015, Halifax named donair the city's official food.[26] Historically found only inAtlantic Canada, the dish's popularity has expanded to other parts of Canada in various forms.[67][63]
Al pastor is a variation of doner kebab via Lebanese shawarma. Literally meaning"in the style of the shepherd", it references the lamb often used in shawarma, though it is normally made with pork.[68]
Doner kebab is best known in the United States in its Greek variation, now known asgyros. Numerous people have made competing claims to have introduced the dish sometime in the 1960s, and its mass production in the 1970s.[69] Originally known in Greece asντονέρ (doner), by 1970 in the United States the newly coined namegyros was commonly in use,[70][71] though it was still known in some Greek restaurants by both names into the 1970s.[72][24] It was also available, possibly later, in some Turkish restaurants.[73][74][75] In recent years a number of restaurants and food trucks specializing in doner kebab have opened in various parts of the country; a substantial percentage are owned by German immigrants.[76][77]
With a multicultural population, the doner kebab in Australia competes with the Greekgyros and the Lebaneseshawarma.[78] Kebab sellers are subject to strict government food safety regulations.[79]
Ahalal snack pack is a dish that originated in Australia. It consists ofhalal-certified doner kebab meat, chips (french fries), and sauces such aschili,garlic andbarbecue. It is traditionally served in a styrofoam container, and has been described as a staple dish of takeawaykebab shops in Australia.[80][81] The name of the dish was selected by theMacquarie Dictionary as the "People's choice Word of the Year" for 2016.[82]
Health concerns regarding doner kebab, including the hygiene involved in overnight storage and re-heating of partially cooked meat, its quality, as well as high salt, fat, and calorie levels, have been reported in the media.[83][84][85] Some investigations have found poor-quality ingredients in doner kebab meat, or meat types other than what was advertised.[86][87]Food safety regulations in most developed countries address the dangers of bacteria in undercooked meat of all kinds sold to the public. Some have guidelines specific to doner kebab handling and preparation. Following several outbreaks ofE. coli food poisoning, the Canadian government in 2008 introduced a number of recommendations, including that the meat should be cooked a second time after being sliced from the rotisserie.[88] In Germany, any doner kebab meat placed onto the rotisserie must be sold the same day. It is a violation of German health regulations to freeze partially cooked meat for sale at a later date.[89]
Bursa is the town that gave birth to the world-famousdoner kebab, meat roasted on a vertical revolving spit.
doner kebab, also known as a gyro, the by-now-familiar compressed seasoned lamb cooked on a vertical rotisserie, slices of which are served as a sandwich on Greek pita bread
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