Sources for area, capital, coat of arms, coordinates, flag, language, motto and names: [14] For an alternate area figure of 48,730 km2 (18,810 sq mi), calling code 809 and Internet TLD: [4]
The nativeTaíno people had inhabited Hispaniola prior toEuropean contact, dividing it intofive chiefdoms.Christopher Columbus claimed the island forCastile, landing there on hisfirst voyage in 1492. Thecolony of Santo Domingo became the site of the first permanent European settlement in theAmericas. In 1697, Spain recognized French dominion over the western third of the island, which became the independentFirst Empire of Haiti in 1804. A group of Dominicans deposed the Spanish governor and declared independence from Spain in November 1821, but were annexed by Haiti in February 1822. Independence came 22 years later in 1844, after victory in theDominican War of Independence. The next 72 years saw several civil wars, failed invasions by Haiti, and a brief return to Spanish colonial status, before permanently ousting the Spanish during theDominican Restoration War of 1863–1865. From 1930, the dictatorship ofRafael Trujillo ruled until his assassination in 1961.Juan Bosch was elected president in 1962 but was deposed in amilitary coup in 1963. TheDominican Civil War of 1965 preceded the authoritarian rule ofJoaquín Balaguer (1966–1978 and 1986–1996). Since 1978, the Dominican Republic has moved towardsrepresentative democracy.
The Dominican Republic has thelargest economy in the Caribbean and theseventh-largest inLatin America.[17][18] Over the last 25 years, the Dominican Republic has had the fastest-growing economy in theWestern Hemisphere – with an averagereal GDP growth rate of 5.3% between 1992 and 2018.[19] GDP growth in 2014 and 2015 reached 7.3 and 7.0%, respectively, the highest in the Western Hemisphere.[19] Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing, tourism, and mining. The country is the site of the third largest (in terms of production)gold mine in the world, thePueblo Viejo mine.[20][21] The gold production of the country was 31 metric tonnes in 2015.[22]
The Dominican Republic is themost visited destination in the Caribbean.[23] A geographically diverse nation, the Dominican Republic is home to both the Caribbean's tallest mountain peak,Pico Duarte, and the Caribbean's largest lake and lowest point,Lake Enriquillo.[24] The island has an average temperature of 26 °C (78.8 °F) and great climatic and biological diversity.[25] The country is also the site of the firstcathedral,palace,monastery, andfortress built in the Americas, located in Santo Domingo'sColonial Zone, aWorld Heritage Site.[26][27]
For most of its history, up until independence, the colony was known simply asSanto Domingo[30] and continued to be commonly known as such in English until the early 20th century.[31] The residents were called "Dominicans" (Dominicanos), the adjectival form of "Domingo", and as such, the revolutionaries named their newly independent country the "Dominican Republic" (la República Dominicana).
In thenational anthem of the Dominican Republic (himno nacional de la República Dominicana), the poetic term "Quisqueyans" (Quisqueyanos) is used instead of "Dominicans". The word "Quisqueya" derives from theCiguayo language, and means "mother of the lands". It is often used in songs as another name for the country. The name of the country in English is often shortened to "the D.R." (la R.D.), but this is rare in Spanish.[32]
ThePomier Caves are a series of 55 caves located north of San Cristóbal. They contain the largest collection of 2,000-year-old rock art in the Caribbean.
The islands of the Caribbean were first settled around 6,000 years ago by hunter-gatherer peoples originating from Central America or northern South America. TheArawakan-speaking ancestors of theTaíno moved into the Caribbean from South America during the 1st millennium BCE, reaching Hispaniola by around 600 CE.[33] These Arawakan peoples engaged in farming, fishing,[34] hunting and gathering,[35] and the widespread production ofceramic goods.[33]
The estimates of Hispaniola's population in 1492 vary widely, ranging from tens of thousands[36] to 2 million.[37]
By 1492, the island was divided into five Taíno chiefdoms.[38][39] The Taíno name for the entire island was eitherAyiti orQuisqueya.[40]
Christopher Columbus arrived on the island on December 5, 1492, during the first of hisfour voyages to the Americas. He claimed the land for Spain and named itLa Española, due to its diverse climate and terrain, which reminded him of theSpanish landscape.[41] In 1496,Bartholomew Columbus, Christopher's brother, built the city ofSanto Domingo, Western Europe's first permanent settlement in the "New World". The Spaniards created aplantation economy.[42]
Initially, after friendly relationships, the Taínos resisted the conquest, led by female ChiefAnacaona of Xaragua and her ex-husband ChiefCaonabo of Maguana, as well as ChiefsGuacanagaríx,Guamá,Hatuey, andEnriquillo. The latter's successes gained his people an autonomous enclave on the island. Within a few years after 1492, the population of Taínos had declined drastically due tosmallpox,[43] measles, and other diseases that arrived with the Europeans.[44] African slaves were imported to replace the dwindling Taínos.
The last record of pure Taínos in the country was from 1864. Still, Taíno biological heritage survived due to intermixing. Census records from 1514 reveal that 40% of Spanish men in Santo Domingo were married to Taíno women,[45] and some present-day Dominicans have Taíno ancestry.[46][47]
By the time of theTreaty of Ryswick in 1697, which ceded the western one-third of the island to France, the population of Santo Domingo consisted of a few thousand whites, approximately 30,000 black slaves, and a few Taínos.[48] By 1789, the population had grown to 125,000, but Santo Domingo remained one of Spain's less wealthy and strategically important colonies in the New World.[48] The population composition of Santo Domingo sharply contrasted with that of the neighboring French colony ofSaint-Domingue—the wealthiest colony in the Caribbean and whose population of half a million was 90% enslaved and four times as numerous as Santo Domingo.[49][30]
In 1795, Spain ceded Santo Domingo to France by theTreaty of Basel as a result of its defeat in theWar of the Pyrenees. Saint-Domingue achieved independence as Haiti from France on January 1, 1804. In 1809, the French were expelled from the island and Santo Domingo returned toSpanish rule.[50]
In 1838,Juan Pablo Duarte and others established a secret patriotic society calledLa Trinitaria, which helped undermine Haitian occupation.
After a dozen years of discontent and failed independence plots by various opposing groups, including afailed 1812 revolt led byfreedmen, Santo Domingo's former Lieutenant-Governor (top administrator),José Núñez de Cáceres, declared the colony's independence from theSpanish crown asSpanish Haiti, on November 30, 1821. This period is also known as the Ephemeral independence.[51]
The newly independent republic ended two months later, when it was occupied and annexed by Haiti, then under the leadership ofJean-Pierre Boyer.[52] For twenty-two years, Haiti controlled Santo Domingo, which it calledPartie de l'Est, treating it as a colonial territory. The unpaid Haitian army sustained itself by taking resources from the Dominican people and land without compensation.[53]
In 1838,Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society calledLa Trinitaria, which sought the complete independence of Santo Domingo without any foreign intervention.[54]: p147–149 AlsoFrancisco del Rosario Sánchez andRamon Matias Mella, despite not being among the founding members of La Trinitaria, were decisive in the fight for independence. Duarte, Mella, and Sánchez are considered the Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic.[55]
On February 27, 1844, the members ofLa Trinitaria declared independence from Haiti. They were backed byPedro Santana, a wealthy cattle rancher, who became general of the army of the nascent republic. The decades that followed were filled with tyranny, factionalism, economic difficulties, rapid changes of government, and exile for political opponents. Archrivals Santana andBuenaventura Báez held power most of the time, both ruling arbitrarily. They promoted competing plans to annex the new nation to a major power. The Dominican Republic's firstconstitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and its population in 1845 was approximately 230,000 people (100,000 whites; 40,000 blacks; and 90,000 mulattoes).[53]
In March 1844, Haiti invaded but the Dominicans put up stiff opposition and inflicted heavy casualties on the Haitians.[56] By April 15, Dominican forces had defeated the Haitian forces on both land and sea.[57] In early July 1844, Duarte was urged by his followers to take the title of President of the Republic. Duarte agreed, but only if free elections were arranged. However, Santana's forces took Santo Domingo on July 12, and they declared Santana ruler of the Dominican Republic. Santana then put Mella, Duarte, and Sánchez in jail. On February 27, 1845, Santana executedMaría Trinidad Sánchez, heroine of La Trinitaria, and others for conspiracy.
After defeating a third Haitian invasion in April 1849 at theBattle of Las Carreras, Santana marched on Santo Domingo and deposed presidentManuel Jimenes (who had ousted Santana as president) in acoup d'état. At his behest, Congress elected Buenaventura Báez as president, but Báez was unwilling to serve as Santana's puppet. In November–December 1849, Dominican seamen raided the Haitian coasts, plundered seaside villages, as far asDame Marie, and butchered crews of captured enemy ships.[58][59] A fourth and final invasion by Haiti in November 1855 was defeated by Dominican forces by January 27, 1856, resulting in thousands of Haitian casualties.[60] Again Santana and Báez plotted against each other for political dominance, with Báez winning the first encounter and expelling Santana in 1857, and Santana winning the second and expelling Báez in 1859.
Restoration republic
Pedro Santana is sworn in as governor-general of the new Spanish province.
In 1861, after imprisoning, exiling, and executing many of his opponents and due to political and economic reasons, Santana asked QueenIsabella II of Spain to retake control of the Dominican Republic. Spain, which had not come to terms with the loss of its mainland American colonies 40 years earlier,annexed the country.[61] The island was occupied by 30,000 Spanish troops bolstered by battalions of Cuban and Puerto Rican volunteers and 12,000 Dominicans who aligned themselves with the Spanish forces.[60] The Haitian rebelSylvain Salnave, fearful of the reestablishment of Spain as colonial power, gave refuge and logistics to revolutionaries seeking to reestablish the independent nation. The ensuing civil war, known as theWar of Restoration, killed more than 50,000.[62]
Map of the capture of the trenches and camps held by the rebels in Puerto Plata on August 31, 1864, by the forces ofJosé de la Gándara y Navarro
The war began on August 16, 1863. The Spanish garrison of Santiago was forced to abandon its fort and retreat toPuerto Plata by mid-September. The Dominicans bombarded the port of Puerto Plata and destroyed much of the town, includingSt. Philip the Apostle Cathedral.[63][64] In the south, Spanish forces were successful in driving the rebels out of several towns and into Haiti. However, the capture ofAzua proved to be a costly endeavor, with two months of fighting and a significant loss of lives for the Spanish.[65] Spanish forces from Cuba attacked and capturedMonte Cristi on the north coast, but sustained heavy casualties.[66]
"Monument to the Heroes of the Restoration"
By 1865, the Dominican forces had confined the Spanish troops to Santo Domingo, and the Spaniards were afraid to venture outside the capital.[67] After nearly two years of fighting, Spain abandoned the island in July 1865. One military historian estimates Spanish casualties at 10,888 killed or wounded in action and thousands dead fromyellow fever, while the Dominican forces fighting for Spain suffered 10,000 casualties.[68] Another military historian estimates that Spain lost 18,000 dead, a figure that does not include the Dominicans, Cubans, and Puerto Ricans fighting alongside them.[67] The Dominicans fighting for independence against Spain suffered more than 4,000 dead.
Political strife again prevailed in the following years; warlords ruled, military revolts were extremely common, and the nation amassed debt. It was now Báez's turn to act on hisplan of annexing the country to the United States, where two successive presidents were supportive. U.S. PresidentUlysses S. Grant desired a naval base atSamaná and also a place for resettling newly freed African Americans.[69] The treaty was defeated in theUnited States Senate in 1870.[52][70][71][72] Báez was toppled in 1874, returned, and was toppled for good in 1878.
Relative peace came to the country in the 1880s, which saw the coming to power of GeneralUlises Heureaux.[73] "Lilís", as the new president was nicknamed, put the nation deep into debt while using much of the proceeds for his personal use and to maintain his police state.[73][74] In 1899, he was assassinated. However, the relative calm over which he presided allowed improvement in the Dominican economy. The sugar industry was modernized,[75]: p10 and the country attracted foreign workers and immigrants. Lebanese, Syrians, Turks, and Palestinians began to arrive in the country during the latter part of the 19th century.[76] During the U.S. occupation of 1916–24, peasants from the countryside, called Gavilleros, would not only kill U.S. Marines, but would also attack and kill Arab vendors traveling through the countryside.[77]
From 1902 on, short-lived governments were again the norm, with their power usurped by caudillos in parts of the country. Furthermore, the national government was bankrupt and, unable to pay its debts to European creditors, faced the threat of military intervention by France,Germany, andItaly.[78] United States PresidentTheodore Roosevelt sought to prevent European intervention, largely to protect the routes to the futurePanama Canal. He made a small military intervention to ward off European powers, to proclaim his famousRoosevelt Corollary to theMonroe Doctrine, and also to obtain his 1905 Dominican agreement for U.S. administration of Dominican customs, which was the chief source of income for the Dominican government. A 1906 agreement provided for the arrangement to last 50 years. The United States agreed to use part of the customs proceeds to reduce the immense foreign debt of the Dominican Republic and assumed responsibility for said debt.[34][78]
After six years in power, PresidentRamón Cáceres (who had himself assassinated Heureaux)[73] was assassinated in 1911. The result was several years of great political instability andcivil war. U.S. mediation by theWilliam Howard Taft andWoodrow Wilson administrations achieved only a short respite each time. A political deadlock in 1914 was broken after an ultimatum by Wilson telling the Dominicans to choose a president or see the U.S. impose one. A provisional president was chosen, and later the same year relatively free elections put former president (1899–1902)Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra back in power. With his formerSecretary of WarDesiderio Arias maneuvering to depose him and despite a U.S. offer of military aid against Arias, Jimenes resigned on May 7, 1916.[79] Wilson thus ordered the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic.
TheUnited States Marine Corps landing on Dominican soil in 1916Fort San Felipe was captured on June 1, 1916, by 133 U.S. Marines after a battle against 500 Dominican rebels, resulting in several U.S. casualties.[80]The flag of theUnited States waving overOzama Fortress during the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic,c. 1922
U.S. Marines landed on May 16, 1916, and seized the capital and other ports, while General Arias fell back to his inland Santiago stronghold.[81] A significant weaponry disparity led to Arias's defeat as his forces tried to block the Marines' advance on Santiago with trenches and black-powder rifles.[82] The clashes with the U.S. Marines marked the first time the Dominicans had ever encountered a machine gun.[83] A peace delegation from Santiago surrendered the city on July 5, coinciding with General Arias' surrender to the Dominican governor. The military government established by the U.S. under the Navy and Marine Corps on November 29, led by Vice AdmiralHarry Shepard Knapp, was widely repudiated by the Dominicans, but organized resistance ceased.[84]
The occupation regime kept most Dominican laws and institutions and largely pacified the general population. The occupying government also revived the Dominican economy, reduced the nation's debt, built a road network that at last interconnected all regions of the country, and created a professional National Guard to replace the warring partisan units.[79] Additionally, with grass-roots support from local communities and assistance from both Dominican and US officials, the Dominican education system expanded significantly during US occupation. Between 1918 and 1920, more than three hundred schools were established nationwide.[85] The system of forced labour used by theMarines in Haiti was largely absent in the Dominican Republic.[86]
The U.S. government's rule ended in October 1922, and elections were held in March 1924.[79] The victor was former president (1902–03)Horacio Vásquez. He was inaugurated on July 13, 1924, and the last U.S. forces left in September.[87] In 1930, GeneralRafael Trujillo, who was trained by the U.S. Marines during the occupation,[88] seized power following a military revolt against the government of Vásquez.
Trujillo consolidated his power afterHurricane San Zenón devastated Santo Domingo in September 1930, killing 8,000 people. A few of the former caudillos initially opposed the new dictator. General Cipriano Bencosme led an uprising but was defeated and killed in November 1930 during a confrontation with the army near Puerto Plata. General Desiderio Arias was also unsuccessful, dying in combat nearMao in June of the following year.[89]
Trujillo Era (1930–1961)
Rafael Trujillo imposed a dictatorship of 31 years (1930–1961).
There was considerable economic growth duringRafael Trujillo's long and iron-fisted regime, although a great deal of the wealth was taken by the dictator and other regime elements. There was progress in healthcare, education, and transportation, with the building of hospitals, clinics, schools, roads, and harbors. Trujillo also carried out an important housing construction program and instituted a pension plan. He finally negotiated an undisputed border with Haiti in 1935, and achieved the end of the 50-year customs agreement in 1941, well before it would have expired in 1956. He made the country debt-free in 1947.[34][90] This was accompanied most noticeably by absolute repression and the copious use of murder, torture, and terrorist methods against the opposition.
Several Dominicans were assassinated inNew York City after taking part in anti-Trujillo activities.[88] In October 1937, Dominican troops murdered 10,000 to 15,000 Haitian men, women, and children—mostly with machetes—along the Haitian-Dominican border under the orders of Trujillo.[88]
DuringWorld War II, Trujillo symbolically sided with theAllies. During the course of the war, German U-boats torpedoed and sank two Dominican merchant vessels—theSan Rafael off the coast of Jamaica, and thePresidente Trujillo offFort-de-France—along with four other Dominican-manned ships in the Caribbean. The country did not make a military contribution to the war, but Dominican sugar and other agricultural products supported the Allied war effort, and the Dominican Republic also accepted Jewish refugeesfleeing Nazi persecution.
The arsenal atSan Cristóbal, operated under Trujillo's regime, produced rifles, machine guns, and ammunition.[91] Trujillo also formed a Foreign Legion of 3,000 mercenaries to attempt to overthrowFidel Castro in Cuba. MajorWilliam Morgan agreed to lead the attack for $1 million, but Castro learned of the plot and instructed Morgan to go along with it and report back. Trujillo was tricked into believing that Morgan had capturedTrinidad. On August 13, 1959, aC-47 transport flying from the Dominican Republic carrying military advisors and supplies landed at Trinidad airport. Castro seized the aircraft and the ten occupants and arrested some 4,000 suspects throughout Cuba.[92] Earlier in June, Cuban soldiers and Cuban-trained Dominican guerrillas attempted an unsuccessful invasion of the Dominican Republic.[93] Between 1946 and 1949, the Dominican government purchased military aircraft and warships from the British government,[94] which were used to defeat the invasion by air and sea.
On November 25, 1960, Trujillo's henchmen killed three of the fourMirabal sisters, nicknamedLas Mariposas (The Butterflies). Along with their husbands, the sisters were conspiring to overthrow Trujillo in a violent revolt. TheInternational Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women is observed on the anniversary of their deaths.
Aftermath of the June 24, 1960, assassination attempt.
For a long time, the U.S. and the Dominican elite supported the Trujillo government. This support persisted despite the assassinations of political opposition, themassacre of Haitians, and Trujillo's plots against other countries.[95] The U.S. finally broke with Trujillo in 1960, after Trujillo's agents attempted to assassinate the Venezuelan presidentRómulo Betancourt with a car bomb, as he was a fierce critic of Trujillo.[96][97] The assassination attempt inCaracas wounded the Venezuelan president and his Minister of Defense, and killed an air force colonel and a policeman. During Betancourt's earlier exile in Cuba, Trujillo's agents attempted to inject poison into him on a Havana street in broad daylight.[98]
Trujillo's car following the May 30, 1961, assassination.
After its representatives confirmed Trujillo's complicity in the nearly successful assassination attempt, theOrganization of American States (OAS), for the first time in its history, decreed sanctions against a member state.[99] The OAS voted unanimously to condemn the Dominican Republic for its aggression and imposed an arms embargo.[100] The United States severed diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic on August 26, 1960, and in January 1961 suspended the export of trucks, parts, crude oil, gasoline and other petroleum products. U.S. PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower also took advantage of OAS sanctions to drastically cut purchases of Dominican sugar, the country's major export. This action ultimately cost the Dominican Republic almost $22,000,000 in lost revenues at a time when its economy was in a rapid decline. Trujillo had become expendable, and dissidents inside the Dominican Republic argued that assassination was the only certain way to remove him.[101][102]
On May 30, 1961, Trujillo was shot and killed by Dominican dissidents during a car chase.[88]
On May 31, 1961, the following day, Venezuela arrested several individuals plotting to overthrow the government, armed with weapons traced to the Dominican Republic.[103]
Post-Trujillo (1961–1996)
Juan Bosch, the first democratically elected president after Trujillo
After the assassination,Ramfis Trujillo, the dictator's son, remained in de facto control of the government for the next 6 months, as commander of the armed forces. Trujillo's brothers, Hector Bienvenido and Jose Arismendi Trujillo, returned to the country and plotted against President Balaguer. On November 18, 1961, as a planned coup became more evident, U.S. Secretary of StateDean Rusk issued a warning that the US would not "remain idle" if the Trujillos attempted to "reassert dictatorial domination". Following this warning, and the arrival of a 14-vessel U.S. naval task force within sight of Santo Domingo, Ramfis and his uncles fled the country on November 19. The OAS lifted its sanctions on January 4, 1962.[104]
In February 1963, a democratically elected government under leftistJuan Bosch took office but it was overthrown by a military coup in September. On April 24, 1965, a second military coup ousted the military-installed presidentDonald Reid Cabral.[105] Despite tank assaults,strafing, and aerial bombardment by the opposing Loyalists, the pro-Bosch Constitutionalists maintained control of most of the capital. By April 26, 5,000 armed civilians outnumbered the 1,500 original rebel military regulars. Radio Santo Domingo, now fully under rebel control, began to call for more violent actions and the killing of all police officers.
On April 28, U.S. PresidentLyndon B. Johnson deployed U.S. Marines fromGuantanamo Bay Naval Base to Santo Domingo to protect American citizens, with U.S. forces subsequently expanded to 24,000 troops.[88] On April 30, two battalions of the82nd Airborne Division landed atSan Isidro airfield. Hours later, U.S. troops crossed the Duarte Bridge to link up with Loyalists, who were to secure a corridor for the Marines guarding the U.S. Embassy. However, the Loyalists withdrew to San Isidro airfield instead.[106] On May 2, U.S. forces were authorized to link up, and the outgunned Constitutionalists retreated to the southeastern part of the city. A ceasefire was declared on May 5. The following day, U.S. diplomats persuaded the OAS to establish anInter-American Peace Force to support American troops. The following countries volunteered: Brazil (1,250 soldiers), Costa Rica (25 police), Honduras (250 soldiers), Nicaragua (164 soldiers), and Paraguay (286 soldiers).[107]
U.S. and OAS peacekeeping troops remained in the country for over a year and left after supervising elections in 1966 won byJoaquín Balaguer. He had been Trujillo's last puppet-president.[34][108] Balaguer remained in power as president for 12 years. His tenure was a period of repression of human rights and civil liberties.[109] His rule was criticized for a growing disparity between rich and poor. It was, however, praised for an ambitious infrastructure program, which included construction of large housing projects, sports complexes, theaters, museums, aqueducts, roads, highways, and the massiveColumbus Lighthouse, completed in 1992 during a later tenure.
In 1978, Balaguer was succeeded to the presidency by opposition candidateAntonio Guzmán Fernández, of theDominican Revolutionary Party (PRD).Hurricane David hit the Dominican Republic in August 1979, which left upwards of 2,000 people dead and 200,000 homeless. The hurricane caused over $1 billion in damage. Another PRD win in 1982 followed, underSalvador Jorge Blanco. Balaguer regained the presidency in 1986 and was re-elected in 1990 and 1994, in the latter defeating PRD candidateJosé Francisco Peña Gómez, a former mayor of Santo Domingo. The 1994 elections were flawed, bringing international pressure, to which Balaguer responded by scheduling another presidential contest in 1996. Balaguer was not a candidate. The PSRC candidate was his Vice PresidentJacinto Peynado Garrigosa.[110]
1996–present
In 1996, with the support of Joaquín Balaguer and the Social Christian Reform Party in a coalition called the Patriotic Front,Leonel Fernández achieved the first-ever win for theDominican Liberation Party (PLD),[111] which Bosch had founded in 1973 after leaving the PRD. Fernández oversaw a fast-growing economy: growth averaged 7.7% per year, unemployment fell, and exchange and inflation rates were stable.[112]
In 2000, the PRD'sHipólito Mejía won the election. This was a time of economic troubles.[112] Under Mejía, the Dominican Republic participated in the US-led coalition, as part of the MultinationalPlus Ultra Brigade, during the 2003invasion of Iraq, suffering no casualties. In 2008, Fernández was elected for a third term.[113] Fernández and the PLD are credited with initiatives that moved the country forward technologically. His administrations were accused of corruption.[112]
Danilo Medina of the PLD was elected president in 2012 and re-elected in 2016. A significant increase in crime, government corruption and a weak justice system threatened to overshadow their administrative period.[114][115] He was succeeded by the opposition candidateLuis Abinader in the2020 election (weeks afterprotests erupted in the country against Medina's government), marking the end to 16 years in power of the centre-left Dominican Liberation Party (PLD).[116][117] In May 2024, President Luis Abinader won a second term in theelections. His tough policies towards migration from neighbouring Haiti was popular among voters.[118]
The Dominican Republic comprises the eastern five-eighths ofHispaniola, the second-largest island in theGreater Antilles, with theAtlantic Ocean to the north and theCaribbean Sea to the south. It shares the island roughly at a 2:1 ratio withHaiti, the north-to-south (though somewhat irregular) border between the two countries being 376 km (234 mi).[4] To the north and north-west lieThe Bahamas and theTurks and Caicos Islands, and to the east, across theMona Passage, the US Commonwealth ofPuerto Rico. The country's area is reported variously as 48,442 km2 (18,704 sq mi) (by the embassy in the United States)[14] and 48,670 km2 (18,792 sq mi),[4] making it the second largest country in theAntilles, afterCuba. The Dominican Republic's capital and largest citySanto Domingo is on the southern coast.[4] The Dominican Republic is located near fault action in the Caribbean.
The Dominican Republic has four important mountain ranges. The most northerly is theCordillera Septentrional ("Northern Mountain Range"), which extends from the northwestern coastal town ofMonte Cristi, near the Haitian border, to theSamaná Peninsula in the east, running parallel to the Atlantic coast. The highest range in the Dominican Republic – indeed, in the whole of the West Indies – is theCordillera Central ("Central Mountain Range"). In the Cordillera Central are the four highest peaks in the Caribbean:Pico Duarte (3,098 metres or 10,164 feet above sea level),[4] La Pelona (3,094 metres or 10,151 feet), La Rucilla (3,049 metres or 10,003 feet), and Pico Yaque (2,760 metres or 9,055 feet). In the southwest corner of the country, south of the Cordillera Central, there are two other ranges: the more northerly of the two is theSierra de Neiba, while in the south theSierra de Bahoruco is a continuation of theMassif de la Selle in Haiti. There are other, minor mountain ranges, such as theCordillera Oriental ("Eastern Mountain Range"),Sierra Martín García,Sierra de Yamasá, andSierra de Samaná.
Between the Central and Northern mountain ranges lies the rich and fertileCibao valley. This major valley is home to the cities ofSantiago andLa Vega and most of the farming areas of the nation. Rather less productive are the semi-arid San Juan Valley, south of the Central Cordillera, and the Neiba Valley, tucked between the Sierra de Neiba and the Sierra de Bahoruco. Much of the land around theEnriquillo Basin is below sea level, with a hot, arid, desert-like environment. There are other smaller valleys in the mountains, such as theConstanza,Jarabacoa,Villa Altagracia, andBonao valleys.TheLlano Costero del Caribe ("Caribbean Coastal Plain") is the largest of the plains in the Dominican Republic. Stretching north and east of Santo Domingo, it contains many sugar plantations in thesavannahs that are common there. West of Santo Domingo its width is reduced to 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) as it hugs the coast, finishing at the mouth of the Ocoa River. Another large plain is thePlena de Azua ("Azua Plain"), a very arid region inAzua Province. A few other small coastal plains are on the northern coast and in thePedernales Peninsula.
Salto del Limón, one of many waterfalls across the Dominican Republic
Four major rivers drain the numerous mountains of the Dominican Republic. TheYaque del Norte is the longest and most important Dominican river. It carries excess water down from the Cibao Valley and empties into Monte Cristi Bay, in the northwest. Likewise, theYuna River serves the Vega Real and empties into Samaná Bay, in the northeast. Drainage of the San Juan Valley is provided by the San Juan River,tributary of theYaque del Sur, which empties into the Caribbean, in the south. TheArtibonito is the longest river of Hispaniola and flows westward into Haiti. There are many lakes and coastal lagoons. The largest lake isEnriquillo, asalt lake at 45 metres (148 ft) below sea level, the lowest elevation in the Caribbean.[4]
The Dominican Republic has atropical rainforest climate[120] in the coastal and lowland areas. Some areas, such as most of theCibao region, have atropical savanna climate.[120] Due to its diverse topography, Dominican Republic's climate shows considerable variation over short distances and is the most varied of all the Antilles. The annual average temperature is 25 °C (77 °F). At higher elevations the temperature averages 18 °C (64.4 °F) while near sea level the average temperature is 28 °C (82.4 °F). Low temperatures of 0 °C (32 °F) are possible in the mountains while high temperatures of 40 °C (104 °F) are possible in protected valleys. January and February are the coolest months of the year while August is the hottest month. Snowfall can be seen on rare occasions on the summit ofPico Duarte.[121]
Thewet season along the northern coast lasts from November through January. Elsewhere the wet season stretches from May through November, with May being the wettest month. Average annual rainfall is 1,500 millimetres (59.1 in) countrywide, with individual locations in the Valle de Neiba seeing averages as low as 350 millimetres (13.8 in) while the Cordillera Oriental averages 2,740 millimetres (107.9 in). The driest part of the country lies in the west.[121]
Tropical cyclones strike the Dominican Republic every couple of years, with 65% of the impacts along the southern coast. Hurricanes are most likely between June and October.[121][4] The last major hurricane that struck the country wasHurricane Georges in 1998.[122]
Bats make up 90% of the native terrestrial mammal species residing in the Dominican Republic.[123] Lake Enriquillo, located in the Dominican Republic's southwest, is home to the largest population ofAmerican crocodiles.[124]
Judicial authority rests with theSupreme Court of Justice's 16 members. The court "alone hears actions against the president, designated members of his Cabinet, and members of Congress when the legislature is in session."[113] The court is appointed by a council known as theNational Council of the Magistracy which is composed of the president, the leaders of both houses of Congress, the President of the Supreme Court, and an opposition or non–governing-party member.
The Dominican Republic has amulti-party political system. Elections are held every two years, alternating between thepresidential elections, which are held in years evenly divisible by four, and the congressional and municipal elections, which are held in even-numbered years not divisible by four. "International observers have found that presidential and congressional elections since 1996 have been generally free and fair."[113] Starting in 2016, elections are held jointly, after a constitutional reform.[125]
According toInternational IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, the Dominican Republic performs in the mid-range on overall democratic measures, with particular strengths in civil society, inclusive suffrage, and free political parties.[127][128][129]
The Dominican Republic is divided into 31provinces. Santo Domingo, the capital, is designatedDistrito Nacional (National District). The provinces are divided into municipalities (municipios; singularmunicipio). They are the second-level political andadministrative subdivisions of the country. The president appoints the governors of the 31 provinces. Mayors and municipal councils administer the 124 municipal districts and the National District (Santo Domingo). They are elected at the same time as congressional representatives.[113]
The provinces are the first–level administrative subdivisions of the country. The headquarters of the central government's regional offices are normally found in the capital cities of provinces. The president appoints an administrative governor (Gobernador Civil) for each province but not for the Distrito Nacional (Title IX of the constitution).[130]The Distrito Nacional was created in 1936. Prior to this, the Distrito National was the old Santo Domingo Province, in existence since the country's independence in 1844. It is not to be confused with the new Santo Domingo Province split off from it in 2001. While it is similar to a province in many ways, the Distrito Nacional differs in its lack of an administrative governor and consisting only of one municipality,Santo Domingo, the city council (ayuntamiento) and mayor (síndico) which are in charge of its administration.[131]
The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with theUnited States, and has close cultural ties with theCommonwealth of Puerto Rico, and other states and jurisdictions of the United States.
The Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic are the military forces of the Dominican Republic. They consist of approximately 56,000 active duty personnel.[137] The President of the Dominican Republic is thecommander in chief of the Armed Forces of the Dominican Republic and the Ministry of Defense is the chief managing body of the armed forces.
TheArmy, with 28,750 active duty personnel,[137] consists of sixinfantry brigades, an air cavalry squadron and a combat service support brigade. TheAir Force operates two main bases, one in the southern region nearSanto Domingo and one in the northern region of the country, the air force operates approximately 75 aircraft including helicopters. TheNavy operates two major naval bases, one in Santo Domingo and one in Las Calderas on the southwestern coast.
The armed forces have organized a Specialized Airport Security Corps (CESA) and a Specialized Port Security Corps (CESEP) to meet international security needs in these areas. The secretary of the armed forces has also announced plans to form a specialized border corps (CESEF). The armed forces provide 75% of personnel to the National Investigations Directorate (DNI) and the Counter-Drug Directorate (DNCD).[113]
View ofSanto Domingo, the Dominican Republic's capital city
During the last three decades, the Dominican economy, formerly dependent on the export of agricultural commodities (mainly sugar, cocoa and coffee), has transitioned to a diversified mix of services, manufacturing, agriculture, mining, and trade. The service sector accounts for almost 60% of GDP; manufacturing, for 22%; tourism, telecommunications and finance are the main components of the service sector; however, none of them accounts for more than 10% of the whole.[139] The Dominican Republic has a stock market,Bolsa de Valores de la República Dominicana (BVRD).[140] and advanced telecommunication system and transportation infrastructure.[25] High unemployment and income inequality are long-term challenges.[4] International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives and sends large flows of migrants. Mass illegal Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues.[141] A large Dominican diaspora exists, mostlyin the United States,[142] contributes to development, sending billions of dollars to Dominican families in remittances.[4][113]
Remittances in Dominican Republic increased to US$4571.30 million in 2014 from US$3333 million in 2013 (according to data reported by the Inter-American Development Bank). Economic growth takes place in spite of a chronic energy shortage,[143] which causes frequent blackouts and very high prices. Despite a widening merchandisetrade deficit, tourism earnings and remittances have helped buildforeign exchange reserves. Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the gross domestic product (GDP) fell by up to 5% and consumer price inflation reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of growth and declining inflation until 2002, after which the economy entered arecession.[113]
This recession followed the collapse of the second-largestcommercial bank in the country,Baninter, linked to a major incident of fraud valued at US$3.5 billion. The Baninter fraud had a devastating effect on the Dominican economy, with GDP dropping by 1% in 2003 as inflation ballooned by over 27%. All defendants, including the star of the trial,Ramón Báez Figueroa (the great-grandson of PresidentBuenaventura Báez),[144] were convicted.
According to the 2005 Annual Report of the United Nations Subcommittee on Human Development in the Dominican Republic, the country is ranked No. 71 in the world for resource availability, No. 79 for human development, and No. 14 in the world for resource mismanagement. These statistics emphasize national government corruption, foreign economic interference in the country, and the rift between the rich and poor.
The Dominican Republic has a noted problem ofchild labor in its coffee, rice, sugarcane, and tomato industries.[145] The labor injustices in the sugarcane industry extend to forced labor according to theU.S. Department of Labor. Three large groups own 75% of the land: the State Sugar Council (Consejo Estatal del Azúcar, CEA),Grupo Vicini, and Central Romana Corporation.[146]
According to the 2016Global Slavery Index, an estimated 104,800 people are enslaved in the modern day Dominican Republic, or 1% of the population.[147][148][149]
The Dominican peso (abbreviated $ or RD$;ISO 4217 code is "DOP")[150] is the national currency, with theUnited States dollar, theEuro, theCanadian dollar and theSwiss franc also accepted at most tourist sites. The exchange rate to the U.S. dollar, liberalized by 1985, stood at 2.70 pesos per dollar in August 1986,[54]: p417, 428 14.00 pesos in 1993, and 16.00 pesos in 2000. As of September 2018[update] the rate was 50.08 pesos per dollar.[151]
Tourism is one of the fueling factors in the Dominican Republic's economic growth. The Dominican Republic is the most popular tourist destination in theCaribbean. With the construction of projects likeCap Cana, San Souci Port in Santo Domingo,Casa De Campo and the Hard Rock Hotel & Casino (ancient Moon Palace Resort) inPunta Cana, the Dominican Republic expects increased tourism activity in the upcoming years.
Ecotourism has also been a topic increasingly important, with towns likeJarabacoa and neighboringConstanza, and locations like thePico Duarte,Bahía de las Águilas, and others becoming more significant in efforts to increase direct benefits from tourism. Most residents from other countriesare required to get a tourist card, depending on the country they live in. In the last 10 years the Dominican Republic has become one of the world's notably progressive states in terms of recycling and waste disposal.
The Dominican Republic has a well developedtelecommunications infrastructure, with extensive mobile phone andlandline services.Cable Internet andDSL are available in most parts of the country, and manyInternet service providers offer3G wireless internet service. Projects to extendWi-Fi hot spots have been made in Santo Domingo.
The telecommunications regulator in the country is INDOTEL (Instituto Dominicano de Telecomunicaciones). The largest telecommunications company isClaro – part ofCarlos Slim'sAmérica Móvil – which provides wireless, landline, broadband, andIPTV services. In June 2009 there were more than 8 million phone line subscribers (land and cell users) in the D.R., representing 81% of the country's population and a fivefold increase since the year 2000, when there were 1.6 million. The communications sector generates about 3.0% of the GDP.[152] There were 2,439,997 Internet users in March 2009.[153]In November 2009, the Dominican Republic became the first Latin American country to pledge to include a "gender perspective" in every information and communications technology (ICT) initiative and policy developed by the government.[154] This is part of the regionaleLAC2010 plan. The tool the Dominicans have chosen to design and evaluate all the public policies is the APCGender Evaluation Methodology (GEM).
Electric power service has been unreliable since the Trujillo era, and as much as 75% of the equipment is that old. The country's antiquated power grid causes transmission losses that account for a large share of billed electricity from generators. The privatization of the sector started under a previous administration of Leonel Fernández.[112] The recent investment in a 345 kilovolt "Santo Domingo–Santiago Electrical Highway"[155] with reducedtransmission losses, is being heralded as a major capital improvement to the national grid since the mid-1960s.
During the Trujillo regime electrical service was introduced to many cities. Almost 95% of usage was not billed at all. Around half of the Dominican Republic's 2.1 million houses have no meters and most do not pay or pay a fixed monthly rate for their electric service.[156]
Household and general electrical service is delivered at 110volts alternating at 60 Hz. Electrically powered items from the United States work with no modifications. The majority of the Dominican Republic has access to electricity. Tourist areas tend to have more reliable power, as do business, travel, healthcare, and vital infrastructure.[157] Concentrated efforts were announced to increase efficiency of delivery to places where the collection rate reached 70%.[158] The electricity sector is highly politicized. Some generating companies are undercapitalized and at times unable to purchase adequate fuel supplies.[113]
The country has three national trunk highways, which connect every major town. These areDR-1,DR-2, andDR-3, which depart from Santo Domingo toward the northern (Cibao), southwestern (Sur), and eastern (El Este) parts of the country respectively. These highways have been consistently improved with the expansion and reconstruction of many sections. Two other national highways serve as spur (DR-5) or alternative routes (DR-4).
In addition to the national highways, the government has embarked on an expansive reconstruction of spur secondary routes, which connect smaller towns to the trunk routes. In the last few years the government constructed a 106-kilometer toll road that connects Santo Domingo with the country's northeastern peninsula. Travelers may now arrive in the Samaná Peninsula in less than two hours. Other additions are the reconstruction of the DR-28 (Jarabacoa – Constanza) andDR-12 (Constanza – Bonao). Despite these efforts, many secondary routes still remain either unpaved or in need of maintenance. There is currently a nationwide program to pave these and other commonly used routes. Also, theSantiago light rail system is in planning stages but currently on hold.
Bus
There are two main bus transportation services in the Dominican Republic: one controlled by the government, through the Oficina Técnica de Transito Terrestre (OTTT) and the Oficina Metropolitana de Servicios de Autobuses (OMSA), and the other controlled by private business, among them, Federación Nacional de Transporte La Nueva Opción (FENATRANO) and the Confederacion Nacional de Transporte (CONATRA). The government transportation system covers large routes in metropolitan areas such as Santo Domingo and Santiago.
There are many privately owned bus companies, such as Metro Servicios Turísticos and Caribe Tours, that run daily routes.
Santo Domingo Metro
A pair of 9000 series are tested on the Santo Domingo Metro.
The Dominican Republic has arapid transit system inSanto Domingo, the country's capital. It is the most extensive metro system in the insularCaribbean and Central American region by length and number of stations. The Santo Domingo Metro is part of a major "National Master Plan" to improve transportation in Santo Domingo as well as the rest of the nation. The first line was planned to relieve traffic congestion in theMáximo Gómez andHermanas Mirabal Avenue. The second line, which opened in April 2013, is meant to relieve the congestion along theDuarte-Kennedy-Centenario Corridor in the city from west to east. The current length of the Metro, with the sections of the two lines open as of August 2013[update], is 27.35 kilometres (16.99 mi). Before the opening of the second line, 30,856,515 passengers rode the Santo Domingo Metro in 2012.[159] With both lines opened, ridership increased to 61,270,054 passengers in 2014.
The Dominican Republic's population was 11,117,873 in 2021,[160][161] compared to 2,380,000 in 1950.[162] In 2010, 31.2% of the population was under 15 years of age, with 6% of the population over 65 years of age.[163] There were an estimated 102.3 males for every 100 females in 2020.[4] The annual population growth rate for 2006–2007 was 1.5%, with the projected population for the year 2015 being 10,121,000.[164]
The population density in 2007 was 192 per km2 (498 per sq mi), and 63% of the population lived in urban areas.[165] The southern coastal plains and the Cibao Valley are the most densely populated areas of the country. The capital city Santo Domingo had a population of 2,907,100 in 2010.
^Villa Hermosa's population has been added to La Romana's population since its belongs to its Metropolitan Area.
^Verón-Punta Cana, a township dependent of Higüey in political matters, has been segregated (alongside with coastal Las Lagunas de Nisibón township) from Higüey's population given its large size (over 100,000 inhabitants) and geographical distance from Higüey (50 km), and listed as "Punta Cana", its English most common name.
In a 2022 population survey, 71.7% self-identified asMixed (Indio[b] 34.2%, Moreno 26.1%,Mestizo 7.7%,Mulatto 3.8%), 18.7% asWhite, 7.4% asBlack, and 0.3% as "Other".[167] According to recentgenealogical DNA studies of the Dominican population, the genetic makeup is predominantlyEuropean andSub-Saharan African, with a lesser degree ofIndigenous ancestry.[168] The average Dominican DNA of the founder population is estimated to be 73% European, 10% Native, and 17% African. After the Haitian and Afro-Caribbean migrations the overall percentage changed to 57% European, 8% Native and 35% African.[169] Due to mixed race Dominicans (and most Dominicans in general) being a mix of mainly European and African, with lesser amounts of Indigenous ancestry, they could be described as"Mulatto" or"Tri-racial".[170][171] Dominican Republic have several informal terms to loosely describe a person's degree of racial admixture, Mestizo means any type of mixed ancestry unlike in other Latin American countries it describes specifically a European/native mix,[172]Indio describes mixed race people whose skin color is between white and black.[173]
The majority of the Dominican population is tri-racial, with nearly all mixed race individuals havingTaínoNative American ancestry along withEuropean (mainly Spanish) andAfrican ancestry. European ancestry in the mixed population typically ranges between 50% and 60% on average, while African ancestry ranges between 30% and 35%, and the Native ancestry usually ranges between 8% and 12%. European and Native ancestry tends to be strongest in cities and towns of the north-centralCibao region (60%-80% European, 12-20% Taino), and generally in the mountainous interior of the country. African ancestry is strongest in coastal areas, the southeast plain, and the border regions.[168] Race in Dominican Republic acts as a continuum of white—mulatto—black due to the large amounts of interracial mixing for hundreds of years in Dominican Republic and the Spanish Caribbean in general, allowing for high amounts of genetic diversity.[174][175]
Dominican Republic people in Duarte province
Dominican Republic's citizenship is given byright of blood (Jus sanguinis), notright of soil, meaning being born in Dominican Republic does not guarantee citizenship if parents are illegal immigrants.[176] One would either have to be born in Dominican Republic to parents who are legal citizens or apply for citizenship; citizenship is granted quite easily to people born abroad if they can prove Dominican ancestry.[177] This means that being aDominican citizen and being anethnic Dominican is not always interchangeable, as the former implies citizenship that one can receive moving from any country in the world to Dominican Republic, while the latter implies a people tied by ancestry and culture. Ethnic Dominicans are people who are not only born in Dominican Republic (and have legal status) or born abroad with ancestral roots in the country, but more importantly have family roots in the country going back several generations and descend from a mix of varying degrees of Spanish, Taino, and African, the three principal foundational roots of Dominican Republic.[170][178] Nearly all Dominicans are mixed race, with 75% being "visibly" and "evenly"mixed, and the remaining 25% being predominantly of African or European blood.[179] According to a 2017 estimate from the Dominican government, Dominican Republic had a population of 10,189,895, of which 847,979 were immigrants or descendants of recent immigrants and 9,341,916 wereethnic Dominicans.[180] Most Dominicans embrace all sides of their mixed race heritage, but often identify with their nationality first and foremost. Many Dominicans born in the United States now reside in the Dominican Republic, estimated at around 250,000, creating a kind of expatriate community, whom have growing influence and play a significant role in the economic growth in Dominican Republic.[181][182][183][184]
Haitians make up the largest ethnic immigrant group in the country, a large majority of them are illegal, in a distant second place are theVenezuelans.[185][186] Other groups in the country include the descendants ofWest Asians—mostlyLebanese,Syrians andPalestinians. A smaller, yet significant presence ofEast Asians (primarilyethnic Chinese andJapanese) can also be found throughout the population. Dominicans are also composed ofSephardic Jews that were exiled fromSpain and the Mediterranean area in 1492 and 1497,[187] coupled with other migrations dating to the 1700s[188] and during theSecond World War[189] contribute to Dominican ancestry.[190][191]
The population of the Dominican Republic is mostlySpanish-speaking, with the only people who do not speak Spanish fluently being some immigrants. The localvariant of Spanish is calledDominican Spanish, which closely resembles other Spanishvernaculars in the Caribbean and has similarities toCanarian Spanish. In addition, it has influences from African languages and borrowed words fromindigenous Caribbean languages particular to the island of Hispaniola.[192][193] Schools are based on a Spanish educational model; English and French are mandatory foreign languages in both private and public schools,[194][failed verification] although the quality of foreign languages teaching is poor.[195][better source needed]
Haitian Creole is the largest minority language in the Dominican Republic and is spoken byHaitian immigrants and their descendants.[196] There is a community of a few thousand people whose ancestors spokeSamaná English in theSamaná Peninsula. They are the descendants of formerly enslaved African Americans who arrived in the nineteenth century, but only a few elders speak the language today.[197] Tourism, American pop culture, the influence ofDominican Americans, and the country's economic ties with the United States motivate other Dominicans to learn English. The Dominican Republic is ranked 2nd in Latin America and 23rd in the World on Englishproficiency as a second language.[198][199]
The Catholic Church began to lose its strong dominance in the late 19th century. This was due to a lack of funding, priests, and support programs. During the same time,Protestant Evangelicalism began to gain wider support "with their emphasis on personal responsibility and family rejuvenation, economic entrepreneurship, and biblicalfundamentalism".[207] The Dominican Republic has two Catholic patroness saints:Nuestra Señora de la Altagracia (Our Lady Of High Grace) andNuestra Señora de las Mercedes (Our Lady Of Mercy).
The Dominican Republic has historically granted extensive religious freedom. According to theUnited States Department of State, "The constitution specifies that there is no state church and provides for freedom of religion and belief. A concordat with the Vatican designates Catholicism as the official religion and extends special privileges to the Catholic Church not granted to other religious groups. These include the legal recognition of church law, use of public funds to underwrite some church expenses, and complete exoneration from customs duties."[208] In the 1950s restrictions were placed upon churches by the government of Trujillo. Letters of protest were sent against the mass arrests of government adversaries. Trujillo began a campaign against the Catholic Church and planned to arrest priests and bishops who preached against the government. This campaign ended before it was put into place, with his assassination.
During World War II a group of Jews escapingNazi Germany fled to the Dominican Republic and founded the city ofSosúa. It has remained the center of the Jewish population since.[209]
In the 20th century, manyArabs (fromLebanon,Syria, andPalestine),[210] Japanese, and, to a lesser degree,Koreans settled in the country as agricultural laborers and merchants. The Chinese companies found business in telecom, mining, and railroads. The Arab community is rising at an increasing rate and is estimated at 80,000.[210]
In addition, there are descendants of immigrants who came from other Caribbean islands, includingSt. Kitts and Nevis,Antigua,St. Vincent,Montserrat,Tortola,St. Croix,St. Thomas, andGuadeloupe. They are known locally asCocolos. They worked on sugarcane plantations and docks and settled mainly in the cities ofSan Pedro de Macorís andPuerto Plata. Puerto Rican, and to a lesser extent, Cuban immigrants fled to the Dominican Republic from the mid-1800s until about 1940 due to a poor economy and social unrest in their respective home countries.[215] Many Puerto Rican immigrants settled inHigüey, among other cities, and quickly assimilated due to similar culture. Before and during World War II, 800 Jewish refugees moved to the Dominican Republic.[216][failed verification]
Numerous immigrants have come from other Caribbean countries, as the country has offered economic opportunities. There are many Haitians andVenezuelans living in the Dominican Republic, there are the largest immigrant groups in the country currently, and large numbers of both groups are present in the country illegally.[4] There is an increasing number of well-offPuerto Rican immigrants, owning businesses and vacation homes in the country, many retiring there, they are believed to number around 10,000.[217][218] Many Europeans and Americans (non-Puerto Rican) are also retiring in the country.[219] About 300,000 U.S. citizens reside in Dominican Republic, of which 250,000 areDominican Americans whom have returned to the country, and 50,000 are Americans of non-Dominican ancestry from the mainland United States and the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico.[220][221]
The2010 Census registered 311,969 Haitians; 24,457 Americans; 6,691 Spaniards; 5,763 Puerto Ricans; and 5,132 Venezuelans.[222] In 2012, the Dominican government made a survey of immigrants in the country and found that there were: 329,281Haitian-born; 25,814U.S.-born (excluding Puerto Rican-born); 7,062Spanish-born; 6,083Puerto Rican-born; 5,417Venezuelan-born; 3,841Cuban-born; 3,795Italian-born; 3,606Colombian-born; 2,043French-born; 1,661German-born; 1,484Chinese-born; among others.[223][224][225][226] In the second half of 2017, a second survey of foreign population was conducted in the Dominican Republic. The total population in the Dominican Republic was estimated at 10,189,895, of which 9,341,916 were Dominicans with no foreign background. According to the survey, the majority of the people with foreign background were of Haitian origin (751,080 out of 847,979, or 88.6%), breaking down as follows: 497,825 were Haitians born in Haiti, 171,859 Haitians born in the Dominican Republic and 81,590 Dominicans with a Haitian parent. Other main sources of foreign-born population were Venezuela (25,872), the United States (10,016), Spain (7,592), Italy (3,713),China (3,069), Colombia (2,642), Puerto Rico (2,356), and Cuba (2,024).[180]
A satellite image of theborder betweenHaiti (left) and the Dominican Republic (right), highlighting thedeforestation on the Haitian sideDominicans and Haitians lined up to attend medical providers from theU.S. Army ReserveView of border region between the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The border runs horizontally through the middle of the picture.Haitian workers being transported inPunta Cana, the Dominican Republic
Human Rights Watch estimated that 70,000 documented Haitian immigrants and 1,930,000 undocumented immigrants were living in Dominican Republic.[c]
Haiti is the neighboring nation to the Dominican Republic and is considerably poorer, less developed and is additionally the least developed country in the western hemisphere. In 2003, 80% of all Haitians were poor (54% living in abject poverty) and 47.1% were illiterate. The country of nine million people also has a fast growing population, but over two-thirds of the labor force lack formal jobs. Haiti's per capita GDP (PPP) was $1,800 in 2017, or just over one-tenth of the Dominican figure.[4][232]
As a result, hundreds of thousands of Haitians have migrated to the Dominican Republic, with some estimates of 800,000 Haitians in the country,[141] while others put the Haitian-born population as high as one million.[233] They usually work at low-paying and unskilled jobs in building construction and house cleaning and in sugar plantations.[234] There have been accusations that some Haitian immigrants work in slavery-like conditions and are severely exploited.[235]
Due to the lack of basic amenities and medical facilities in Haiti a large number of Haitian women, often arriving with several health problems, cross the border to Dominican soil. They deliberately come during their last weeks of pregnancy to obtain medical attention for childbirth, since Dominican public hospitals do not refuse medical services based on nationality or legal status. Statistics from a hospital in Santo Domingo report that over 22% of childbirths are by Haitian mothers.[236]
Haiti alsosuffers from severe environmental degradation. Deforestation is rampant in Haiti; today less than 4 percent of Haiti's forests remain, and in many places the soil has eroded right down to the bedrock.[237] Haitians burn wood charcoal for 60% of their domestic energy production. Because of Haiti running out of plant material to burn, some Haitian bootleggers have created an illegal market for charcoal on the Dominican side. Conservative estimates calculate the illegal movement of 115 tons of charcoal per week from the Dominican Republic to Haiti. Dominican officials estimate that at least 10 trucks per week are crossing the border loaded with charcoal.[238]
In 2005, Dominican President Leonel Fernández criticized collective expulsions of Haitians as having taken place "in an abusive and inhuman way".[239] After a UN delegation issued a preliminary report stating that it found a profound problem of racism and discrimination against people of Haitian origin, DominicanForeign MinisterCarlos Morales Troncoso issued a formal statement denouncing it, asserting that "our border with Haiti has its problems[;] this is our reality and it must be understood. It is important not to confuse national sovereignty with indifference, and not to confuse security withxenophobia."[240]
Haitian nationals send half abilliondollars total yearly in remittance from the Dominican Republic to Haiti, according to theWorld Bank.[241]
The government of the Dominican Republic invested a total of $16 billion pesos in health services offered to foreign patients in 2013–2016, according to official data, which includes medical expenses in blood transfusion, clinical analysis, surgeries and other care.[242] According to official reports, the country spends more than five billion Dominican pesos annually in care for pregnant women who cross the border ready to deliver.[243]
The children of Haitian immigrants are eligible for Haitian nationality,[244] but they may be denied it by Haiti because of a lack of proper documents or witnesses.[245][246][247][248]
The first of three late-20th century emigration waves began in 1961 after the assassination of dictator Trujillo,[249] due to fear of retaliation by Trujillo's allies and political uncertainty in general. In 1965, the United States began a military occupation of the Dominican Republic to end a civil war. Upon this, the U.S. eased travel restrictions, making it easier for Dominicans to obtain U.S. visas.[250] From 1966 to 1978, the exodus continued, fueled by high unemployment and political repression. Communities established by the first wave of immigrants to the U.S. created a network that assisted subsequent arrivals.[251]
In the early 1980s, underemployment, inflation, and the rise in value of the dollar all contributed to a third wave of emigration from the Dominican Republic. Today, emigration from the Dominican Republic remains high.[251] In 2012, there were approximately 1.7 million people of Dominican descent in the U.S., counting both native- and foreign-born.[252] There was also a growingDominican immigration to Puerto Rico, with nearly 70,000 Dominicans living there as of 2010[update]. Although that number is slowly decreasing and immigration trends have reversed because of Puerto Rico's economic crisis as of 2016[update].
There is a significant Dominican population in Spain.[253][254]
Primary education is regulated by the Ministry of Education, with education being a right of all citizens andyouth in the Dominican Republic.[255]
Preschool education is organized in different cycles and serves the 2–4 age group and the 4–6 age group. Preschool education is not mandatory except for the last year. Basic education is compulsory and serves the population of the 6–14 age group. Secondary education is not compulsory, although it is the duty of the state to offer it for free. It caters to the 14–18 age group and is organized in a common core of four years and three modes of two years of study that are offered in three different options: general or academic, vocational (industrial, agricultural, and services), and artistic.
The higher education system consists of institutes and universities. The institutes offer courses of a higher technical level. The universities offer technical careers, undergraduate and graduate; these are regulated by the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology.[256] The Dominican Republic was ranked 97th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2025, down from 87th in 2019.[257][258][259]
In 2020, the Dominican Republic had an estimatedbirth rate of 18.5 per 1000 and adeath rate of 6.3 per 1000.[4]
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), the Dominican Republic ranks 41st out of 127 countries with sufficient data. The Dominican Republic's GHI score is 7.8, which indicates a low level of hunger.[260]
According to theWHO, the estimated incidence rate oftuberculosis (TB) in the Dominican Republic (42 cases per 100,000 people in 2023) is one of the highest in the Caribbean (after Haiti).[261]
The Dominican Republic has a 0.9% prevalence rate ofHIV/AIDS.[262] Some urban areas of the Dominican Republic experience HIV/AIDS infection rates well in excess of 10%.[263] In some parts of the Dominican Republic, HIV/AIDS has become one of the leading cause of death among teenagers and adults between 15–49 years old.[263]
In 2012, the Dominican Republic had amurder rate of 22.1 per 100,000 population.[264] There was a total of 2,268 murders in the Dominican Republic in 2012.[264]
The Dominican Republic has become a trans-shipment point for Colombian drugs destined for Europe as well as the United States and Canada.[4][265] Money-laundering via the Dominican Republic is favored by Colombian drug cartels for the ease of illicit financial transactions.[4] In 2004, it was estimated that 8% of all cocaine smuggled into the United States had come through the Dominican Republic.[266] The Dominican Republic responded with increased efforts to seize drug shipments, arrest and extradite those involved, and combat money-laundering.
The often-light treatment of violent criminals has been a continuous source of local controversy. In April 2010, five teenagers, aged 15 to 17, shot and killed two taxi drivers and killed another five by forcing them to drink drain-cleaning acid. On September 24, 2010, the teens were sentenced to prison terms of three to five years, despite the protests of the taxi drivers' families.[267]
Some of the Dominican Republic's important symbols are theflag,the coat of arms, and the national anthem, titledHimno Nacional. The flag has a large white cross that divides it into four quarters. Two quarters are red and two are blue. Red represents the blood shed by the liberators. Blue expresses God's protection over the nation. The white cross symbolizes the struggle of the liberators to bequeath future generations a free nation. An alternative interpretation is that blue represents the ideals of progress and liberty, whereas white symbolizes peace and unity among Dominicans.[269]
In the center of the cross is the Dominican coat of arms, in the same colors as the national flag. The coat of arms pictures a red, white, and blue flag-draped shield with a Bible, a gold cross, and arrows; the shield is surrounded by an olive branch (on the left) and a palm branch (on the right). The Bible traditionally represents the truth and the light. The gold cross symbolizes the redemption from slavery, and the arrows symbolize the noble soldiers and their proud military. A blue ribbon above the shield reads, "Dios, Patria, Libertad" (meaning "God, Fatherland, Liberty"). A red ribbon under the shield reads, "República Dominicana" (meaning "Dominican Republic"). Out of all the flags in the world, the depiction of a Bible is unique to the Dominican flag.
The Dominican Republic celebratesDia de la Altagracia on January 21 in honor of its patroness,Duarte's Day on January 26 in honor of one of its founding fathers, Independence Day on February 27,Restoration Day on August 16,Virgen de las Mercedes on September 24, andConstitution Day on November 6.
Architecture
Church and Convent, Colonial Santo DomingoLate 19th-century Victorian architecture is prominent in Puerto Plata
The architecture in the Dominican Republic represents a complex blend of diverse cultures. The deep influence of theEuropean colonists is the most evident throughout the country. Characterized by ornate designs andbaroque structures, the style can best be seen in the capital city ofSanto Domingo, which is home to the first cathedral, palace, monastery, and fortress in all of theAmericas, located in the city'sColonial Zone, an area declared as aWorld Heritage Site byUNESCO.[26][272] The designs carry over into the villas and buildings throughout the country. It can also be observed on buildings that contain stucco exteriors, arched doors and windows, and red tiled roofs.
The indigenous peoples of the Dominican Republic have also had a significant influence on the architecture of the country. TheTaíno people relied heavily on the mahogany and guano (dried palm tree leaf) to put together crafts, artwork, furniture, and houses. Utilizing mud, thatched roofs, and mahogany trees, they gave buildings and the furniture inside a natural look, blending in with the island's surroundings.
Lately, with the rise in tourism and increasing popularity as a Caribbean vacation destination, architects in the Dominican Republic have now begun to incorporate cutting-edge designs that emphasize luxury. In many ways an architectural playground, villas and hotels implement new styles, while offering new takes on the old. This new style is characterized by simplified, angular corners and large windows that blend outdoor and indoor spaces.
Visual arts
Dominican art is perhaps most commonly associated with the bright, vibrant colors and images that are sold in every tourist gift shop across the country. However, the country has a long history offine art that goes back to the middle of the 1800s when the country became independent and the beginnings of a national art scene emerged.
Historically, the painting of this time were centered around images connected to national independence, historical scenes, portraits but also landscapes and images of still life. Styles of painting ranged betweenneoclassicism andromanticism. Between 1920 and 1940 the art scene was influenced by styles ofrealism andimpressionism. Dominican artists were focused on breaking from previous, academic styles in order to develop more independent and individual styles.
The Dominican politician, rector and authorAndrés López de Medrano (1780 – May 6, 1856) became the first enlightened philosopher of the Dominican Republic and supported Dominican independence.[273] Medrano is best known for writing one of the most importantphilosophical works of the 19th century, a treaty or guide entitledLogic, Elements of Modern Philosophy (1814), which became the first book of Dominican philosophy and the first book printed in the Dominican Republic.[273]
The 20th century brought many prominent Dominican writers, and saw a general increase in the perception of Dominican literature. Writers such asJuan Bosch,Pedro Mir (national poet of the Dominican Republic[274][275][276]),Aida Cartagena Portalatin, Emilio Rodríguez Demorizi (the most important Dominican historian, with more than 1000 written works[277][278][279][280]),Manuel del Cabral (main Dominican poet featured in black poetry[281][282]), Hector Inchustegui Cabral (considered one of the most prominent voices of the Caribbean social poetry of the twentieth century[283][284][285][286]), Miguel Alfonseca (poet belonging to Generation 60[287][288]), Rene del Risco (acclaimed poet who was a participant in the June 14 Movement[289][290][291]),Mateo Morrison, among many more prolific authors, put the island in one of the most important in Literature in the twentieth century.
Musically, the Dominican Republic is known for theworld popularmusical style and genre calledmerengue,[295]: 376–7 a type of lively, fast-paced rhythm and dance music consisting of a tempo of about 120 to 160 beats per minute (though it varies) based on musical elements like drums, brass, chorded instruments, and accordion, as well as some elements unique to the Spanish-speaking Caribbean, such as thetambora andgüira.
Dominicans dancing in parade with traditional dress
Bachata, a form of music and dance that originated in the countryside and rural marginal neighborhoods of the Dominican Republic, has become quite popular in recent years. Its subjects are often romantic; especially prevalent are tales of heartbreak and sadness. In fact, the original name for the genre wasamargue ("bitterness", or "bitter music"), until the rather ambiguous (and mood-neutral) termbachata became popular. Bachata grew out of, and is still closely related to, thepan-Latin American romantic style calledbolero. Over time, it has been influenced by merengue and by a variety of Latin American guitar styles.
Palo is anAfro-Dominican sacred music that can be found throughout the island. The drum and human voice are the principal instruments. Palo is played at religious ceremonies—usually coinciding with saints' religious feast days—as well as for secular parties and special occasions. Its roots are in theCongo region of central-west Africa, but it is mixed with European influences in the melodies.[296]
Salsa music has had a great deal of popularity in the country. During the late 1960s Dominican musicians likeJohnny Pacheco, creator of theFania All Stars, played a significant role in the development and popularization of the genre.
Dominican rock andReggaeton are also popular. Many, if not the majority, of its performers are based in Santo Domingo and Santiago.
Fashion
The country boasts one of the ten most important design schools in the region, La Escuela de Diseño de Altos de Chavón, which is making the country a key player in the world of fashion and design. Noted fashion designerOscar de la Renta was born in the Dominican Republic in 1932, and became a US citizen in 1971. By 1963, he had designs bearing his own label. After establishing himself in the US, de la Renta opened boutiques across the country.[clarification needed] His work blends French and Spaniard fashion with American styles.[297][298] Although he settled in New York, de la Renta also marketed his work in Latin America, where it became very popular, and remained active in his native Dominican Republic, where his charitable activities and personal achievements earned him the Juan Pablo Duarte Order of Merit and the Order of Cristóbal Colón.[298] De la Renta died of complications from cancer on October 20, 2014.
Chicharrón mixto, a common dish in the country derived from Andalusia in southern Spain
Dominican cuisine is predominantlySpanish,Taíno, andAfrican in origin. The typical cuisine is similar to what can be found in other Latin American countries.[299] One breakfast dish consists of eggs andmangú (mashed, boiled plantain). Heartier versions ofmangú are accompanied by deep-fried meat (Dominican salami, typically), cheese, or both. Lunch, generally the largest and most important meal of the day, usually consists of rice, meat, beans, and salad. "La Bandera" (literally "The Flag") is the most popular lunch dish; it consists of meat and red beans on white rice.Sancocho is a stew often made with seven varieties of meat.[citation needed]
Meals tend to favor meats and starches over dairy products and vegetables. Many dishes are made withsofrito, which is a mix of local herbs used as a wet rub for meats and sautéed to bring out all of a dish's flavors. Throughout the south-central coast,bulgur, or whole wheat, is a main ingredient inquipes ortipili (bulgur salad). Other favorite Dominican foods includechicharrón,yuca,casabe,pastelitos (empanadas),batata,ñame,pasteles en hoja,chimichurris, andtostones.
^The term "indio" in the Dominican Republic is not associated with people of indigenous ancestry but people of mixed ancestry or skin color between light and dark
^Illegal immigration from Haiti has resulted in government action. Immigration from Haiti has increased tensions between Dominicans and Haitians.[227][228][229][230][231] The Dominican Republic is also home to 114,050 illegal immigrants fromVenezuela.[4]
^Baker, Christopher P.; Mingasson, Gilles (2008).Dominican Republic. National Geographic Books. p. 190.ISBN978-1-4262-0232-2.Archived from the original on January 11, 2024. RetrievedJanuary 11, 2024.
^Hand Book of Santo Domingo:Archived January 11, 2024, at theWayback Machine Bulletin, Issue 52. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1892. Digitized August 14, 2012. p. 3."...the Republic of Santo Domingo orRepública Dominicana (Dominican Republic) as it is officially designated."
^H. Hoetink (May 29, 1986)."The Dominican Republic c. 1870–930". In Leslie Bethell (ed.).The Cambridge History of Latin America. Vol. V, Circa 1870 to 1930. Cambridge University Press. p. 287.ISBN978-0-521-24517-3.Archived from the original on January 11, 2024. RetrievedOctober 27, 2016.
^abMoya Pons, Frank (1998).The Dominican Republic: A National History (August 1, 1998 ed.). Markus Wiener Publishers; 2nd edition. p. 543.ISBN978-1-55876-191-9.
^Littell, Eliakim; Littell, Robert S. (September 4, 1850)."Littell's Living Age". T. H. Carter & Company.Archived from the original on January 11, 2024. RetrievedJanuary 11, 2024 – via Google Books.
^Carl Sifakis (2013).Encyclopedia of assassinations: more than 400 infamous attacks that changed the course of history. Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. pp. 105–106.
^Burton K Lim and others, Phylogeography of Dominican Republic bats and implications for systematic relationships in the Neotropics, Journal of Mammalogy, Volume 98, Issue 4, August 1, 2017, Pages 986–993
^Schipper, Joe (August 4, 2023)."Enriquillo Wetlands".One Earth. RetrievedJune 20, 2025.
^Childress, Sarah (August 31, 2011)."DR to Haitians: get lost". pri.org. Global Post.Archived from the original on September 21, 2016. RetrievedAugust 24, 2016.
^Kevin Bales; et al."Dominican Republic".The Global Slavery Index 2016. The Minderoo Foundation Pty Ltd. Archived fromthe original on March 14, 2018. RetrievedMarch 14, 2018.
^Apolinar, Bethania (August 2, 2015)."Enseñanza del inglés es "pobre" en escuelas" [Teaching of English is "poor" in schools] (in Spanish). Santo Domingo: Listin Diario.Archived from the original on June 30, 2016. RetrievedAugust 24, 2016.
^Nicasio Rodríguez, Irma; Jesús de la Rosa (1998).Historia, Metodología y Organización de los Censos en República Dominicana: 1920–1993 (in Spanish). Santo Domingo: Oficinal Nacional de Estadística. pp. 44, 131.
^abGonzález Hernández, Julio Amable (August 11, 2012)."Registro de Inmigrantes de El Líbano".Cápsulas Genealógicas en Areíto (in Spanish). Santo Domingo: Instituto Dominicano de Genealogía.Archived from the original on August 16, 2021. RetrievedMay 28, 2013.Recientemente conocimos un trabajo que se está llevando a cabo en el Club Libanés Sirio Palestino y que consiste en la elaboración de un minucioso registro de todos los inmigrantes que llegaron a la República Dominicana procedentes de El Líbano a fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX. (...) En menor grado, también se está recabando información de los inmigrantes procedentes de Siria y Palestina. Hasta el presente, ya se tienen registros de unos 600 libaneses, 200 palestinos y 200 sirios. (...) Se calcula que en República Dominicana existen unos 80,000 descendientes de esos inmigrantes que una vez dejaron sus tierras para buscar una vida mejor.
^Martínez, Darlenny (May 2, 2013)."Estudio: en RD viven 534,632 extranjeros".El Caribe (in Spanish).Archived from the original on December 12, 2013. RetrievedMay 29, 2014.Según la Primera Encuesta Nacional de Inmigrantes de la República Dominicana (ENI-2012), (...) Después de Haití, explica la investigación, las 10 naciones de donde proceden más inmigrantes son Estados Unidos, con 13,524; España, con 6,720, y Puerto Rico, con 4,416. Además Italia, con 4,040; China, con 3,643; Francia, con 3,599; Venezuela, con 3,434; Cuba con 3,145 inmigrantes; Colombia con 2,738 y Alemania con 1,792.
^"Gobierno dominicano invierte más de RD$3,000 millones en servicios médicos a extranjeros". Periódico elDinero. September 18, 2017.Archived from the original on August 19, 2021. RetrievedJuly 20, 2020.En 2016 el Gobierno destinó, a través del SNS, RD$3,037.7 millones para brindar servicios médicos a extranjeros a través de centros de salud del Estado, según las memorias de rendición de cuentas del Ministerio de Salud Pública.
^"$5 mil millones Gasta RD al año en partos de haitianas". Periódico El Nacional. May 18, 2017.Archived from the original on November 24, 2020. RetrievedJuly 20, 2020.Más de cinco mil millones de pesos invierte el Gobierno anualmente en atenciones a embarazadas haitianas.
^"Constitution of Haiti, 1987".Archived from the original on October 18, 2018. RetrievedOctober 16, 2010.ARTICLE 11: Any person born of a Haitian father or Haitian mother who are themselves native-born Haitians and have never renounced their nationality possesses Haitian nationality at the time of birth.
^Morrison, Thomas K.; Sinkin, Richard (Winter 1982). "International Migration in the Dominican Republic".International Migration Review.16 (4, Special Issue: International Migration and Development):819–836.doi:10.2307/2546161.JSTOR2546161.
^"Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank".Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels. RetrievedDecember 14, 2024.
^Pérez, Faustino."El jardín Botánico Nacional" [The National Botanical Garden].DiarioDigitalRD.com (in Spanish). Archived fromthe original on October 23, 2008. RetrievedOctober 20, 2008.
^"Miguel Alfonseca".El Nuevo Diario (República Dominicana) (in Spanish). November 29, 2018.Archived from the original on December 13, 2019. RetrievedDecember 13, 2019.
^"René del Risco Bermúdez".Educando (in Mexican Spanish). December 15, 2015. Archived fromthe original on November 30, 2019. RetrievedDecember 13, 2019.
^"El Hombrecito". December 19, 2014. Archived fromthe original on December 19, 2014. RetrievedFebruary 14, 2020.
^"Frank Baez".Words Without Borders.Archived from the original on February 14, 2020. RetrievedFebruary 14, 2020.
^Puesan, Antonio (March 2, 2009)."Dominicana busca corona en el clásico mundial" [Dominicans looking for world classic crown] (in Spanish). Sobre el Diamante. Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. RetrievedOctober 22, 2012.
Clodfelter, Micheal (2017).Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015 (4th ed.). McFarland.
Scheina, Robert L. (2003).Latin America's Wars Volume I: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899. Potomac Books.
Scheina, Robert L. (2003b).Latin America's Wars Volume II: The Age of the Professional Soldier, 1900–2001. Potomac Books.
Musicant, Ivan (1990).The Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin America from the Spanish-American War to the Invasion of Panama. Macmillan Publishing Company.
Gleijeses, Piero (1978).The Dominican Crisis: The 1965 Constitutional Revolt and American Intervention. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Further reading
Goff, Frederick Richmond, Michael Locker, and North American Congress on Latin America. 1967.The Violence of Domination : U.S. Power and the Dominican Republic. New York: North American Congress on Latin America.
Wiarda, Howard J., and Michael J. Kryzanek.The Dominican Republic: a Caribbean Crucible, in series,Nations of Contemporary Latin America, and alsoWestview Profiles. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1982.ISBN0-86531-333-4 pbk.
.svg)
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_Saman%25C3%25A1%2c_DR.JPG)
.JPG)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
.jpg)
.svg)
