Djibouti,[a] officially theRepublic of Djibouti,[b] is a country in theHorn of Africa, bordered bySomalia[c] to the south,Ethiopia to the southwest,Eritrea in the north, and theRed Sea and theGulf of Aden to the east. The country has an area of 23,200 km2 (8,958 sq mi).[1]
In antiquity, the territory, together with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somaliland, was part of theLand of Punt. NearbyZeila, now in Somaliland, was the seat of the medievalAdal andIfat Sultanates. In the late 19th century, the colony ofFrench Somaliland was established after the rulingDirSomali andAfar sultans signed treaties with the French,[12][13][14] and itsrailroad toDire Dawa (and laterAddis Ababa) allowed it to quickly supersedeZeila as the port for southernEthiopia and theOgaden.[15] It was renamed theFrench Territory of the Afars and the Issas in 1967. A decade later, the Djiboutian peoplevoted for independence. This officially marked the establishment of theRepublic of Djibouti, named after itscapital city. The new state joined the United Nations in its first year.[16][17] In the early 1990s, tensions over government representation led toarmed conflict, which ended in a power-sharing agreement in 2000 between the ruling party and the opposition.[1]
Djibouti is a multi-ethnic nation with a population of 1,066,809 at the census held on 20 May 2024[6] (the smallest in mainland Africa). French and Arabic are its two official languages; Afar and Somali are national languages. About 94% of Djiboutians adhere toIslam,[1] which is the official religion and has been predominant in the region for more than 1,000 years. TheSomalis andAfar make up the two largest ethnic groups, with the former comprising the majority of the population. Both speak a language of theCushitic branch of theAfroasiatic languages.[1]
Djibouti is near some of the world's busiest shipping lanes, controlling access to theRed Sea andIndian Ocean. It serves as a key refuelling and transshipment center and the principal maritime port for imports from and exports to neighboringEthiopia. A burgeoning commercial hub, the nation is the site of various foreign military bases. TheIntergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) regional body also has its headquarters in Djibouti City.[1]
Name and etymology
Djibouti is officially known as theRepublic of Djibouti. In local languages it is known asGabuuti (inAfar) andJabuuti (inSomali).[18][19]
The country is named for its capital, theCity of Djibouti. The etymology of the name is disputed. There are several theories and legends about its origin, varying based on ethnicity. One theory derives it from theAfar wordgabouti, meaning "plate", possibly referring to the area's geographical features.[20] Another connects it togabood, meaning "upland/plateau".[21] Djibouti could also mean "Land ofTehuti" or "Land ofThoth (Egyptian:Djehuti/Djehuty)", after theEgyptian moon god.[22][23]
Under French administration, from 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of theGulf of Tadjoura was called "Obock". While 1897 to 1967 the area was known asFrench Somaliland (French:Côte française des Somalis), and from 1967 to 1977 as theFrench Territory of the Afars and the Issas (French:Territoire français des Afars et des Issas).
The Djibouti area has been inhabited since theNeolithic. According to linguists, the firstAfroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during this period from the family's proposedurheimat ("original homeland") in theNile Valley,[24] or theNear East.[25] Other scholars propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in situ in the Horn, with its speakers subsequently dispersing from there.[26]
Cut stones dated about 3 million years old have been collected in the area ofLake Abbe.[citation needed] In the Gobaad plain (between Dikhil and Lake Abbe), the remains of the extinct elephantPalaeoloxodon recki were also discovered, visibly butchered using basalt tools found nearby. These remains would date from 1.4 million years BCE. Subsequently, other similar sites were identified as probably the work ofHomo ergaster. AnAcheulean site (from 800,000 to 400,000 years BCE), wherestone was cut, was excavated in the 1990s, in Gombourta, betweenDamerdjog andLoyada, 15 km south ofDjibouti City. Finally, in Gobaad, aHomo erectus jaw was found, dating from 100,000 BCE. OnDevil's Island, tools dating back 6,000 years have been found, which were used to open shells. In the area at the bottom ofGoubet (Dankalélo, not far from Devil's Island), circular stone structures and fragments of paintedpottery have also been discovered. Previous investigators have also reported a fragmentary maxilla, attributed to an older form ofHomo sapiens and dated to c. 250 Ka, from the valley of the Dagadlé Wadi.[27]
Prehistoric rock art and tombs in Djibouti
Pottery predating the mid-2nd millennium has been found atAsa Koma, an inland lake area on the Gobaad Plain. The site's ware is characterized by punctate and incision geometric designs, which bear a similarity to the Sabir culture phase 1 ceramics from Ma'layba inSouthern Arabia. Long-horned humpless cattle bones have likewise been discovered at Asa Koma, suggesting that domesticated cattle were present by around 3,500 years ago. Rock art of what appear to be antelopes and a giraffe are also found atDorra andBalho.Handoga, dated to the fourth millennium BCE, has in turn yielded obsidian microliths and plain ceramics used by early nomadic pastoralists with domesticated cattle.[28][29][30][31]
The site of Wakrita is a smallNeolithic establishment located on awadi in the tectonic depression of Goba'ad in Djibouti in theHorn of Africa. The 2004 excavations yielded abundant ceramics that enabled us to define one Neolithic cultural facies of thisregion, which was also identified at the nearby site ofAsa Koma. The faunal remains confirm the importance of fishing in Neolithic settlements close toLake Abbé, but also the importance of bovine husbandry and, for the first time in this area, evidence for caprine herding practices. Radiocarbon dating places this occupation at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE, similar in range to Asa Koma. These two sites represent the oldest evidence of herding in the region, and they provide a better understanding of the development of Neolithic societies in this region.[32][33][34]
Up to 4000 years BCE, the region benefited from a climate very different from the one it knows today and probably close to theMediterranean climate. The water resources were numerous with lakes in Goba'ad, lakes Assal and Abbé larger and resembling real bodies of water. The humans therefore lived by gathering, fishing and hunting. The region was populated by a very rich fauna:felines,buffaloes,elephants,rhinos, etc., as evidenced, for example, by the bestiary of cave paintings atBalho. In the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE, few nomads settled around the lakes and practiced fishing and cattle breeding. The burial of an 18-year-old woman, dating from this period, as well as the bones of hunted animals, bone tools and smalljewels have been unearthed. By about 1500 BCE, the climate was already beginning to change, with sources of fresh water becoming more scarce. Engravings show dromedaries (animal of arid zones), some of which are ridden by armed warriors. The sedentary people now returned to a nomadic life. Stonetumuli of various shapes and sheltering graves dating from this period have been unearthed all over the territory.[35]
The earliest recorded ancient Egyptian expedition to Punt was organized byPharaohSahure of theFifth Dynasty (25th century BC), returning with cargoes ofantyue and Puntites. However,gold from Punt is recorded as having been inEgypt as early as the time of PharaohKhufu of theFourth Dynasty.[36]
The Hatshepsut Punt Relief depicting three men in Puntite dress bearing gifts
In the reign ofMentuhotep III (11th dynasty, ca. 2000 BC), an officer namedHannu organized one or more voyages to Punt, but it is uncertain whether he personally traveled on these expeditions.[37] Trading missions of the 12th dynasty pharaohsSenusret I,Amenemhat II andAmenemhat IV had also successfully navigated their way to and from the mysterious land of Punt.[38][39]
In theEighteenth Dynasty of Egypt,Hatshepsut built aRed Sea fleet to facilitate trade between the head of theGulf of Aqaba and points south as far as Punt to bring mortuary goods toKarnak in exchange for Nubian gold. Hatshepsut personally made the most famous ancient Egyptian expedition that sailed to Punt. Herartists revealing much about the royals, inhabitants, habitation and variety of trees on the island, revealing it as the "Land of the Gods, a region far to the east in the direction of the sunrise, blessed with products for religious purposes", where traders returned with gold, ivory,ebony,incense, aromatic resins, animal skins, live animals, eye-makeup cosmetics, fragrant woods, and cinnamon.[40][41] During the reign ofQueen Hatshepsut in the 15th century BC, ships regularly crossed the Red Sea in order to obtainbitumen, copper, carved amulets,naptha and other goods transported overland and down the Dead Sea to Elat at the head of the gulf of Aqaba where they were joined withfrankincense andmyrrh coming north both by sea and overland along trade routes through the mountains running north along the east coast of the Red Sea.[42] Together with northern Ethiopia, Somaliland, Eritrea and the Red Sea coast of Sudan, Djibouti is considered the most likely location of the territory known to theAncient Egyptians asPunt (orTa Netjeru, meaning "God's Land"). The first mention of the Land of Punt dates to the 25th century BC.[43] The Puntites were a nation of people who had close relations with Ancient Egypt during the reign of the 5th dynasty PharaohSahure and the 18th dynasty QueenHatshepsut.[44] According to the temple murals atDeir el-Bahari, the Land of Punt was ruled at that time by King Parahu and Queen Ati.[45]
TheAdal (alsoAwdal,Adl, orAdel)[46] was centered aroundZeila, its capital.[47][48][49] It was established by the localSomali clans in the early 9th century. Zeila attracted merchants from around the world, contributing to the wealth of the city. Zeila is an ancient city and it was one of the earliest cities in the world to embraceIslam, shortly after thehijra.Zeila's two-mihrabMasjid al-Qiblatayn dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest mosque.[50][51][46][52] In the late 9th century,Al-Yaqubi, an Arab Muslim scholar and traveler, wrote that the Kingdom of Adal was a small wealthy kingdom and that Zeila served as the headquarters for the kingdom, which dated back to the beginning of the century.[53][54]
The earliest reference to Adal was following the collapse of theMakhzumi dynasty in July 1288 when 'Ali Baziyu led a campaign in Adal andMora which was concluded by the killing of the lords of Adal andMora, the victorious Sultan then annexed Adal and Mora to his Kingdom.[55][56] Adal is also mentioned byMarco Polo in 1295 as a state continuously in conflict with Abyssinia.[57] According to fourteenth centuryArab historianAl Umari, Adal was one of the founding regions of theIfat Sultanate alongsideBiqulzar,Shewa,Kwelgora, Shimi, Jamme and Laboo.[58]It was used ambiguously in the medieval era to indicate the Muslim inhabitant low land portion east of theEthiopian Empire. Including north of theAwash River towardsLake Abbe in modernDjibouti–Ethiopia border as well as the territory betweenShewa andZeila on the coast ofSomalia.[59] Districts within Adal includedHubat,Gidaya andHargaya.[60] It also occasionally included theHadiya Sultanate.[61] The region was mostly located in modern dayAwdal and hadZeila as a capital city but also controlled other interior towns likeAbasa orDakkar extending into theHarar plateau to the south-east and modern day Djibouti in the west.[62][63]
TheWalashma dynasty are regarded by scholars as the founders of the Ifat Sultanate.[64][65] Ifat first emerged when Umar Ibn Dunyā-ḥawaz, later to be known as SultanUmar Walasma, carved out his own kingdom and conquered theSultanate of Shewa located in northernHararghe.[66] In 1288 Sultan Wali Asma successfully imposed his rule onHubat,Zeila and other Muslim states in the region.[67] Taddesse Tamrat explains Sultan Walashma's military acts as an effort to consolidate the Muslim territories in the Horn of Africa in much the same way as EmperorYekuno Amlak was attempting to consolidate the Christian territories in the highlands during the same period.[68]
In 1320 a conflict between the Christian monarch and Muslim Ifat leaders began. The conflict was precipitated byAl-Nasir Muhammad ofEgypt.[69] The Mamluk ruler Al-Nasir Muhammad was persecutingChristian Copts and destroying Coptic churches. The Ethiopian EmperorAmda Seyon I sent an envoy with a warning to the Mamluk ruler that if he did not stop the persecution of Christians in Egypt, he would retaliate against Muslims under his rule and would starve the peoples of Egypt by diverting the course of the Nile.[70][71] According to Pankhurst, of the two threats, the diversion of Nile was an idle threat and the Egyptian sultan dismissed it because he likely realized this to be so. The fear that the Ethiopians might tamper with the Nile, states Pankhurst, was nevertheless to remain with Egyptians for many centuries.[70]
Sabr ad-Din's rebellion was not an attempt to achieve independence, but to become emperor of a Muslim Ethiopia. Amda Seyon's royal chronicle states that Sabr ad-Din proclaimed:
"I wish to be King of all Ethiopia; I will rule the Christians according to their law and I will destroy their churches...I will nominate governors in all the provinces of Ethiopia, as does the King ofZion (Ethiopia)...I will transform the churches into mosques. I will subjugate and convert the King of the Christians to my religion, I will make him a provincial governor, and if he refuses to be converted I will hand him over to one of the shepherds, called Warjeke [i.e.Warjih], that he may be made a keeper of camels. As for the Queen Jan Mangesha, his wife, I will employ her to grind corn. I will make my residence at Marade [i.e.Tegulet], the capital of his kingdom."[72]
In fact, after his first incursion, Sabr ad-Din appointed governors for nearby and neighboring provinces such asFatagar and Alamalé, as well as far-off provinces in the north likeDamot,Amhara,Angot,Inderta,Begemder, andGojjam. He also threatened to plantkhat at the capital, a stimulant used by Muslims but forbidden toEthiopian Orthodox Christians.[73]
In 1376, SultanSa'ad ad-Din Abdul Muhammad, also called Sa'ad ad-Din II, succeeded his brother and came to power, who continued to attack the Abyssinian Christian army. He attacked regional chiefs such as at Zalan and Hadeya, who supported the Emperor.[74] According to Mordechai Abir, Sa'ad ad-Din II raids against the Ethiopian empire were largely hit-and-run type, which hardened the resolve of the Christian ruler to end the Muslim rule in their east.[75] In the early 15th century, the Ethiopian Emperor who was likelyDawit I collected a large army to respond.[74] He branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and invaded Ifat. After much war, Ifat's troops were defeated in 1403 on the Harar plateau, Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din subsequently fled to Zeila where Ethiopian soldiers pursued him.[74][76][77]Al-Maqrizi narrates:
theAmhara pursued Sa'd al-Din as far as the peninsula ofZeila, in the ocean, where he took refuge. The Amhara besieged him there, and deprived him of water; at last one of the impious showed them a way by which they could reach him. When they came upon him a battle ensued; and after three days the water failed. Sa'd al Din was wounded in the forehead and fell to the ground, whereupon they pierced him with their swords. But he died happily, falling in God's cause.[78]
A depiction of Adal's traditional costumes worn by the local inhabitants by Giuseppe Antonelli
After Sa'ad ad-Din's death “the strength of the Muslims was abated”, as Maqrizi states, and then the Amhara settled in the country “and from the ravaged mosques and they made churches”. The followers of Islam were said to have been harassed for over twenty years.[79] The sources disagree on which Ethiopian Emperor conducted this campaign. According to the medieval historianal-Makrizi, EmperorDawit I in 1403 pursued theSultan of Adal,Sa'ad ad-Din II, to Zeila, where he killed the Sultan and sacked the city ofZeila. However, another contemporary source dates the death of Sa'ad ad-Din II to 1410, and credits EmperorYeshaq with the slaying.[80] His children and the remainder of theWalashma dynasty would flee toYemen where they would live in exile until 1415.[81][82]
In 1415,Sabr ad-Din III, the eldest son ofSa'ad ad-Din II, would return to Adal from his exile in Arabia to restore his father's throne.[83] He would proclaim himself "king of Adal" after his return from Yemen to theHarar plateau and established his new capital atDakkar.[84] Sabr ad-Din III and his brothers would defeat an army of 20,000 men led by an unnamed commander hoping to restore the "lost Amhara rule". The victorious king then returned to his capital, but gave the order to his many followers to continue and extend the war against the Christians.[85][86][87] The Emperor of EthiopiaTewodros I was soon killed by the Adal Sultanate upon the return of Sa'ad ad-Din's heirs to the Horn of Africa.[85][86][87]Sabr ad-Din III died a natural death and was succeeded by his brotherMansur ad-Din who invaded the capital and royal seat of the Solomonic Empire and drove EmperorDawit I to Yedaya where according toal-Maqrizi, Sultan Mansur destroyed a Solomonic army and killed the Emperor. He then advanced to the mountains of Mokha, where he encountered a 30,000 strong Solomonic army. The Adalite soldiers surrounded their enemies and for two months besieged the trapped Solomonic soldiers until a truce was declared in Mansur's favour. During this period, Adal emerged as a centre of Muslim resistance against the expanding Christian Abyssinian kingdom.[88] Adal would thereafter govern all of the territory formerly ruled by the Ifat Sultanate,[89][90] as well as the land further east all the way from theBab el Mandeb to Cape Guardafui, according to Leo Africanus.[91][92] Adal is mentioned by name in the 14th century in the context of the battles between the Muslims of the Somali and Afar seaboard and the Abyssinian KingAmda Seyon I'sChristian troops.[93] Adal originally had its capital in the port city of Zeila, situated in the western Awdal region. The polity at the time was anEmirate in the largerIfat Sultanate ruled by theWalashma dynasty.[94]
An illustration of the youngAhmad ibn Ibrahim demonstrating his strength
According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local dynasties consisting of Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis, who also ruled over the similarly establishedSultanate of Mogadishu in theBenadir region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouringAbyssinia.[54] At its height, the Adal kingdom controlled large parts of modern-day Djibouti,Somaliland,Eritrea and Ethiopia. BetweenDjibouti City andLoyada are a number of anthropomorphic and phallicstelae. The structures are associated with graves of rectangular shape flanked by vertical slabs, as also found inTiya, centralEthiopia. The Djibouti-Loyada stelae are of uncertain age, and some of them are adorned with a T-shaped symbol.[95] Additionally, archaeological excavations at Tiya have yielded tombs.[96] As of 1997, 118 stelae were reported in the area. Along with the stelae in theHadiya Zone, the structures are identified by local residents asYegragn Dingay or "Gran's stone", in reference to ImamAhmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran"), ruler of theAdal Sultanate.[97]
ImamAhmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi was a military leader of the medievalAdal Sultanate in the northern Horn of Africa. Between 1529 and 1543, he embarked on a campaign referred to as theFutuh Al-Habash, bringing the three-quarters ofChristianAbyssinia under the control of theMuslim empire.[98] With an army composed of Afar, Harari (Harla), and Somalis,[99] al-Ghazi's forces came close to extinguishing the ancient Ethiopian kingdom, slaughtering any Ethiopian who refused to convert to Islam.[100] Within the span of fourteen years the Imam was able to conquer the heartland of the country, wreaking havoc on the Christian nation.[101] The Bahri Negash joined EmperorGelawdewos and the Portuguese in the decisiveBattle of Wayna Daga, where tradition states that Imam Ahmad was shot in the chest by a Portuguese musketeer named João de Castilho, who had charged alone into the Muslim lines and died. The wounded Imam was then beheaded by an Ethiopian cavalry commander,Azmach Calite.[102][103][104] Once the Imam's soldiers learned of his death, they fled the battlefield.[105] This conflict provided an opportunity for theOromo people toconquer and migrate into the historicallyGafat land ofWelega south of theBlue Nile and eastward to the walls ofHarar, establishing new territories.[106]
In 1550,Nur ibn Mujahid became the Emir ofHarar and the de facto ruler of Adal, fortifying Harar by constructing a defensive wall still present today.[107] In 1559, he led an invasion against theEthiopian Empire, killing EmperorGelawdewos at theBattle of Fatagar, while simultaneously repelling an Ethiopian assault on Harar, which resulted in the death of SultanBarakat ibn Umar Din and the end of theWalashma dynasty.[108] TheOromo then invaded Adal, and Nur's army suffered a defeat at theBattle of Hazalo, though the city's walls kept it safe, albeit under severe famine conditions.[109][110] Nur died in 1567, and was succeeded byUthman the Abyssinian, whose peace treaty with the Oromos led to his overthrow.[111] His successor,Muhammad ibn Nasir, attempted an expedition against Ethiopia but was defeated and killed at theBattle of Webi River, marking the end of Adal's aggression.[112] Muhammad's successor,Mansur ibn Muhammad, fought the Oromos unsuccessfully and later reconqueredAussa andZeila. The death of Nur and the fall of theWalashma monarchs sparked power struggles, withMuhammad Gasa taking the title ofImam in 1576 and relocating the capital toAussa, founding theImamate of Aussa, which declined over the next century, eventually falling to theAfar people.[113] In the seventeenth century,Harla people andDoba populations integrated into theAfar identity, leading to the emergence of theSultanate of Aussa.Enrico Cerulli attributed Adal's downfall to its inability to overcome tribal divisions, unlike the Ethiopian Empire underSarsa Dengel, resulting in ongoing struggles among the nomadic tribes. The collapse of the Adal Sultanate led to the formation of multiple rump states such asAussa, Tadjourah and Rahayto.[114][115][116][117][118][119]
Mamluk Egypt being conquered by theOttomans alarmed theArabian merchants, who were afraid of these new Turkish conquerors hence they chose to travel towards Adal's shores.[120] This was also followed by Indian merchants fleeing from the same enemy.[121] The Ottomans noticing this sudden mass movement, hastidly occupiedZeyla and established a customs house andgalleys patrolling theBab-el-Mandeb.[122][123] By the 17th century, when the Ottomans were compelled to retire from Zeyla, the town and its environs such asTadjoura fell under the control of the rulers ofMocha andSana'a, who had leased the territory to a Sana'a merchant calledSayyid Al-Barr.[124][125][126] Zeyla was subsequently ruled by an Emir, whom Mordechai Abir suggested had "some vague claim to authority over all of theSahil, but whose real authority did not extend very far beyond the walls of the town." Assisted by cannons and a few mercenaries armed withmatchlocks, the governor succeeded in fending off incursions by both the disunited nomads of the interior, who had penetrated the area, as well as brigands in the Gulf of Aden.[127] AlthoughTadjoura claimed complete independence, it was considered subordinate to Zeyla as the sultan would received an annual stipend from the local governor.[128] Abubakr Pasha explained to Vice-AdmiralAlphonse Fleuriot de Langle that when the Imam of Sana'a still controlled the Yemeni coast, some soldiers sent to Tadjoura were one day massacred by the inhabitants of the city. The governor of Mocha then dispatched a new detachment to avenge them. Rather than suffer these reprisals, the city preferred to commit to paying the Imam, each year at the time of the fairs, a perpetual annuity which the governor of Zeyla would be responsible for extracting.[129] Tadjourah's vizier Mahammed Mahammed renewed it for the benefit of the Turkish Pasha ofAl-Hodeydah although the Ottoman Empire never exercised political right over Tadjoura.[130] Mohammed Al-Barr would later be succeeded as governor of Zeila and its dependencies(Sahil) bySharmake Ali Salih.[131] In June 1861, the French accused Sharmarke Ali Salih of being involved in themurder of Henri Lambert, a former French consular agent and supporter of Sharmarke's rival, Aboubakr Pasha, anAfar slave trader. Although the Turkish Pasha ofAl-Hodeydah and theBritish Residency in Aden believed Sharmarke was innocent, he and some of his supporters were arrested and handed over to the French navy. The trial, originally planned forConstantinople, was later moved toJeddah.[132]
Muhammad Ali, Pasha ofEgypt, came to controlYemen,Harar,Gulf of Tadjoura withZeila andBerbera included. The Governor Abou Baker ordered the Egyptian garrison atSagallo to retire toZeila. The cruiser Seignelay reached Sagallo shortly after the Egyptians had departed. French troops occupied the fort despite protests from the British Agent inAden, Major Frederick Mercer Hunter, who dispatched troops to safeguard British and Egyptian interests inZeila and prevent further extension of French influence in that direction.[133]
On 14 April 1884 the Commander of the patrol sloop L'Inferent reported on the Egyptian occupation in the Gulf of Tadjoura. The Commander of the patrol sloop Le Vaudreuil reported that the Egyptians were occupying the interior betweenObock andTadjoura. EmperorYohannes IV of Ethiopia signed an accord with Great Britain to cease fighting the Egyptians and to allow the evacuation of Egyptian forces fromEthiopia and the Somaliland littoral. The Egyptian garrison was withdrawn fromTadjoura. Léonce Lagarde deployed a patrol sloop toTadjoura the following night.
Map of the French Somali Coast and neighboring regions in 1870
The boundaries of the present-day Djibouti state were established as the first French establishment in theHorn of Africa during theScramble for Africa. The March 11, 1862, agreement theAfarsultan, Raieta Dini Ahmet, signed inParis was a treaty where the Afars sold lands surrounding inObock. The French were interested in having acoaling station forsteamships, which would become especially important upon the opening of theSuez Canal in 1869. (Up to that time French ships had to buy coal at the British port ofAden across the gulf, an unwise dependency in case of war.) Later on, that treaty was used by the captain of the Fleuriot de Langle to colonize the south of theGulf of Tadjoura.[134] On March 26, 1885, the French signed another treaty with the Issas where the latter would become a protectorate under the French.[135][136][137]
Solemn procession of Muslims using Sudanese lyres to celebrate Eid in 1913
It was established between 1883 and 1887, after the rulingSomalis andAfar sultans each signed a treaty with theFrench.[138][12][14] An attempt byNikolay Ivanovitch Achinov, aRussian adventurer, to establish a settlement atSagallo in 1889 was promptly thwarted by French forces after just one month. In 1894,Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in thecity of Djibouti and named the regionFrench Somaliland. The construction of theImperial Ethiopian Railway west intoEthiopia turned theport of Djibouti into a boomtown of 15,000[139] at a time whenHarar was the only city in Ethiopia to exceed that.[140]Although the population fell after the completion of the railwayline toDire Dawa and the original company failed and required a government bail-out, the rail link allowed the territory to quickly supersede the caravan-based trade carried on atZeila[141] (then in theBritish area ofSomaliland) and become the premier port forcoffee and other goods leaving southern Ethiopia and theOgaden throughHarar.
Ahmed Abokob, a Somali tirailleur from Djibouti, who participated inWW1
The 6th Somali Marching Battalion was formed in Madagascar on May 11, 1916, with recruits from theFrench Somali Coast and renamed the1st Battalion of Somali Tirailleurs upon arrival in France in June. Originally intended as a staging unit, the battalion’s officers responded to the Somalis' desire to fight, leading to their participation alongside theRICM in the October 1916 assault on Fort Douaumont. For their distinguished role, the battalion's companies were awarded the Croix de Guerre, and the RICM flag received the Legion of Honor. Reorganized as a combat unit by December 1916, the battalion fought at Chemin des Dames in May 1917 and later in significant battles such as Malmaison, the 3rd Battle of the Aisne, and the 2nd Battle of the Marne, earning multiple citations and the right to wear the Croix de Guerre fourragère. Of the 2,434 riflemen deployed, 517 were killed and 1,200 wounded in Europe.
British and Commonwealth forces fought the neighboring Italians during theEast African Campaign. In 1941, the Italians were defeated and the Vichy forces in French Somaliland were isolated. The Vichy French administration continued to hold out in the colony for over a year after the Italian collapse. In response, the British blockaded the port ofDjibouti City but it could not prevent local French from providing information on the passing ship convoys. In 1942, about 4,000British troops occupied the city.[143] A localbattalion from French Somaliland participated in theLiberation of France in 1944.[144]
In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, areferendum was held in Djibouti to decide whether to remain with France or to be an independent country. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident French.[145] There were also allegations of widespreadvote rigging.[146] The majority of those who had voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia as had been proposed byMahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later under suspicious circumstances.[145]
An aerial view ofDjibouti City, the capital of Djibouti
In 1966, France rejected theUnited Nations' recommendation that it should grant French Somaliland independence. In August of the same year, an official visit to the territory by then French PresidentCharles de Gaulle, was also met with demonstrations and rioting.[14][147] In response to the protests, de Gaulle ordered another referendum.[147]
In 1967, asecond plebiscite was held to determine the fate of the territory. Initial results supported a continued but looser relationship with France. Voting was also divided along ethnic lines, with the resident Somalis generally voting for independence, with the goal of eventual union with Somalia, and the Afars largely opting to remain associated with France.[14] The referendum was again marred by reports of vote rigging on the part of the French authorities.[148] Shortly after the plebiscite was held, the formerCôte française des Somalis (French Somaliland) was renamed toTerritoire français des Afars et des Issas.[149] Announcement of the plebiscite results sparked civil unrest, including several deaths. France also increased its military force along the frontier.[149]
During the 1960s, the struggle for independence was led by theFront for the Liberation of the Somali Coast (FLCS), who waged an armed struggle for independence with much of its violence aimed at French personnel. FLCS used to initiate few mounting cross-border operations intoFrench Somaliland fromSomalia andEthiopia to attacks on French targets. On March 24, 1975, the Front de Libération de la Côte des Somalis kidnapped the French Ambassador to Somalia, Jean Guery, to be exchanged against two activists of FLCS members who were both serving life terms in mainlandFrance. He was exchanged for the two FLCS members inAden,South Yemen.[150] The FLCS was recognized as a national liberation movement by theOrganization of African Unity (OAU), which participated in its financing. The FLCS evolved its demands between the request of integration in a possible "Greater Somalia" influenced by theSomali government or the simple independence of the territory. In 1975 the African People's League for the Independence (LPAI) and FLCS met inKampala,Uganda with several meeting later they finally opted for independence path, causing tensions withSomalia.[151]
In 1976, members of theFront de Libération de la Côte des Somalis which sought Djibouti's independence fromFrance, also clashed with the Gendarmerie Nationale Intervention Group over a bus hijacking en route toLoyada. This event, by showing the difficulties of maintaining the French colonial presence in Djibouti, was an important step in theindependence of theterritory. The likelihood of a thirdreferendum appearing successful for the French had grown even dimmer. The prohibitive cost of maintaining thecolony, France's last outpost on thecontinent, was another factor that compelled observers to doubt that theFrench would attempt to hold on to the territory.[147][152]
Djibouti Republic
Ahmed Dini Ahmed proclaiming the Djibouti Declaration of Independence on 27 June 1977
During its first year, Djibouti joined theOrganization of African Unity (now theAfrican Union), theArab League, and the United Nations. In 1986, the nascent republic was also among the founding members of theIntergovernmental Authority on Development regional development organization. During theOgaden War, influential Issa politicians envisioned a Greater Djibouti or "Issa-land", where Djibouti's borders would extend from the Red Sea toDire Dawa.[155] That dream was dashed towards the end of the war as Somali forces were routed from Ethiopia.[155]
The National Assembly (formerly theChamber of Deputies) is the country's legislature,[157][158] consisting of 65 members elected every five years.[159] Althoughunicameral, the Constitution provides for the creation of a Senate.[157][158]Thelast election was held on 23 February 2018. Djibouti has adominant-party system, with thePeople's Rally for Progress (RPP) controlling the legislature and the executive since its foundation in 1979 (the party rules as a part of theUnion for a Presidential Majority, which holds asupermajority of seats). Opposition parties are allowed (limited) freedom, but the main opposition party, theUnion for National Salvation, boycotted the 2005 and 2008 elections, citing government control of the media and repression of the opposition candidates.[159]
President Guelleh succeededHassan Gouled Aptidon in office in 1999.[160] Guelleh was sworn in for his second six-year term after aone-man election on 8 April 2005. He took 100% of the votes in a 78.9% turnout.[160] In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in aseries of protests against the long-serving government, which were associated with the largerArab Spring demonstrations. Guelleh wasreelected to a third term later that year with 80.63% of the vote in a 75% turnout.[161] Although opposition groups boycotted the ballot over changes to the constitution permitting Guelleh to run again for office,[161] international observers from the African Union generally described the election as free and fair.[162][163]
On 31 March 2013, Guelleh replaced long-serving Prime MinisterDilleita Mohamed Dilleita with former president of the Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP)Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed.[164] In December 2014, the ruling Union for the Presidential Majority also signed a framework agreement with the Union of National Salvation coalition, which paves the way for opposition legislators to enter parliament and for reformation of the national electoral agency.[165]
Maryama base during a martial exercise in theArta Region
TheDjiboutian Armed Forces include the Djiboutian Army, which consists of the Djiboutian Navy, the Djiboutian Air Force, and the National Gendarmerie (GN). As of 2011[update], the manpower available for military service was 170,386 males and 221,411 females aged 16 to 49.[1] Djiboutispent over US$36 million annually on its military as of 2011[update] (141st in theSIPRI database). After independence, Djibouti had two regiments commanded by French officers. In the early 2000s, it looked outward for a model of army organization that would best advance defensive capabilities by restructuring forces into smaller, more mobile units instead of traditional divisions.
The first war to involve the Djiboutian Armed Forces was theDjiboutian Civil War between the Djiboutian government, supported by France, and theFront for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). The war lasted from 1991 to 2001, although most of the hostilities ended when the moderate factions of FRUD signed a peace treaty with the government after suffering an extensive military setback when the government forces captured most of the rebel-held territory. A radical group continued to fight the government, but signed its own peace treaty in 2001. The war ended in a government victory, and FRUD became a political party.
As the headquarters of the IGAD regional body, Djibouti has been an active participant in the Somali peace process, hosting theArta conference in 2000.[167] Following the establishment of theFederal Government of Somalia in 2012,[168] a Djiboutian delegation attended the inauguration ceremony of Somalia's new president.[169]
In recent years, Djibouti has improved its training techniques, military command and information structures and has taken steps to becoming more self-reliant in supplying its military to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions, or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it. Now deployed toSomalia andSudan.[170]
American service members in theGrand Bara desert, 2017
TheFrench Forces remained present in Djibouti when the territory gained independence, first as part of a provisional protocol of June 1977 laying down the conditions for the stationing of French forces, constituting a defense agreement. A new defence cooperation treaty betweenFrance and Djibouti was signed inParis on 21 December 2011. It entered into force on 1 May 2014. By that treaty and its security clause, France reaffirmed its commitment to the independence andterritorial integrity of the Republic of Djibouti. As well before independence, in 1962, aFrench Foreign Legion unit, the13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion (13 DBLE) was transferred from Algeria to Djibouti to form the core of the French garrison there.[171] On 31 July 2011, the (13 DBLE) left Djibouti to theUnited Arab Emirates.
The hosting of foreign military bases is an important part of Djibouti's economy. The United States pays $63 million a year to rent Camp Lemonnier,[174] France and Japan each pay about $30 million a year respectively,[175] and China pays $20 million a year.[174] The lease payments added up to more than 5% of Djibouti's total GDP ofUS$2.3 billion in 2017.
In its 2011 Freedom in the World report,Freedom House ranked Djibouti as "Not Free", a downgrading from its former status as "Partly Free".
According to the 2019 U.S. State DepartmentCountry Report on Human Rights Practices, Djibouti's significant human rights issues include unlawful or arbitrary killings by government agents; arbitrary detention by government agents; harsh and life-threatening prison conditions; arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy; unjustified arrests or prosecutions of journalists; criminal libel; substantial interference with the rights of peaceful assembly and freedom of association; significant acts of corruption; and violence against women and girls with inadequate government action for prosecution and accountability, including female genital mutilation/cutting. It states also that impunity was a problem, with the government seldom taking steps to identify and punish officials who committed abuses, whether in the security services or elsewhere in the government.[176]
Djibouti is sub-divided into six administrative regions, withDjibouti city being one of the official regions. It is further subdivided into twentysub-prefectures.
The country's coastline stretches 314 kilometres (195 miles), with terrain consisting mainly of plateau, plains and highlands. Djibouti has a total area of 23,200 square kilometres (8,958 sq mi). Its borders extend 575 km (357 mi), 125 km (78 mi) of which are shared withEritrea, 390 km (242 mi) withEthiopia, and 60 km (37 mi) withSomaliland.[1] Djibouti is the southernmostcountry on the Arabian Plate.[179]
Djibouti has eight mountain ranges with peaks of over 1,000 metres (3,300 feet).[180] TheMousa Ali range is considered the country's highest mountain range, with the tallest peak on the border with Ethiopia and Eritrea. It has an elevation of 2,028 metres (6,654 feet).[180] TheGrand Bara desert covers parts of southern Djibouti in the Arta, Ali Sabieh and Dikhil regions. The majority of it sits at a relatively low elevation, below 1,700 feet (520 metres).
Extreme geographic points include: to the north, Ras Doumera and the point at which the border with Eritrea enters the Red Sea in the Obock Region; to the east, a section of the Red Sea coast north of Ras Bir; to the south, a location on the border with Ethiopia west of the town ofAs Ela; and to the west, a location on the frontier with Ethiopia immediately east of the Ethiopian town ofAfambo.
Djibouti'sclimate is significantly warmer and has significantly less seasonal variation than theworld average. The mean daily maximumtemperatures range from 32 to 41 °C (90 to 106 °F), except at high elevations. InDjibouti City, for instance, average afternoon highs range from 28 to 34 °C (82 to 93 °F) in April. But atAirolaf, which ranges from 1,535 to 1,600 m (5,036 to 5,249 ft), maximum temperature is 30 °C (86 °F) in summer and minimum 9 °C (48 °F) in winter.[182] In theuplands ranges from 500 to 800 m (1,600 to 2,600 ft), are comparable and cooler to those on thecoast in the hottest months of June until August. December and January is the coolest month with averages low temperatures falling as low as 15 °C (59 °F). Djibouti has either ahot semi-arid climate (BSh) or ahot desert climate (BWh), althoughtemperatures are much moderated at the highestelevations.[182]
Djibouti's climate ranges fromarid in the northeastern coastal regions tosemi-arid in the central, northern, western and southern parts of the country. On the eastern seaboard, annual rainfall is less than 5 inches (130 mm); in the central highlands, precipitation is about 8 to 16 inches (200 to 410 millimetres). The hinterland is significantly lesshumid than the coastal regions.
Average daily temperatures for the ten cities in Djibouti[citation needed]
The country'sflora andfauna live in a harsh landscape with forest accounting for less than one percent of the total area of the country.[183] Wildlife is spread over three main regions, namely from the northern mountain region of the country to the volcanic plateaux in its southern and central part and culminating in the coastal region.
Most species of wildlife are found in the northern part of the country, in the ecosystem of theDay Forest National Park. At an average altitude of 1,500 metres (4,921 feet), the area includes the Goda massif, with a peak of 1,783 m (5,850 ft). It covers an area of 3.5 square kilometres (1 sq mi) ofJuniperus procera forest, with many of the trees rising to 20 metres (66 feet) height. This forest area is the main habitat of the endangered and endemicDjibouti francolin (a bird), and another recently noted vertebrate,Platyceps afarensis (acolubrine snake). It also contains many species of woody and herbaceous plants, including boxwood and olive trees, which account for 60% of the total identified species in the country.
According to the country profile related to biodiversity of wildlife in Djibouti, the nation contains more than 820 species of plants, 493 species of invertebrates, 455 species of fish, 40 species of reptiles, three species of amphibians, 360 species of birds and 66 species of mammals.[183] Wildlife of Djibouti is also listed as part ofHorn of Africabiodiversity hotspot and theRed Sea andGulf of Adencoral reef hotspot.[184] Mammals include several species of antelope, such as Soemmerring's gazelle and Pelzeln's gazelle. As a result of the hunting ban imposed since early 1970 these species are well conserved now. Other characteristic mammals areGrevy's zebra,hamadryas baboon andHunter's antelope. Thewarthog, a vulnerable species, is also found in the Day National park. The coastal waters have dugongs andAbyssinian genet; the latter needs confirmation by further studies.Green turtles andhawksbill turtles are in the coastal waters where nestling also takes place.[185][186] TheNortheast African cheetahAcinonyx jubatus soemmeringii is thought to be extinct in Djibouti.
Djibouti's economy is largely concentrated in the service sector. Commercial activities revolve around the country's free trade policies and strategic location as a Red Sea transit point. Due to limited rainfall, vegetables and fruits are the principal production crops, and other food items require importation. The GDP (purchasing power parity) in 2013 was estimated at $2.505 billion, with a real growth rate of 5% annually. Per capita income is around $2,874 (PPP). The services sector constituted around 79.7% of the GDP, followed by industry at 17.3%, and agriculture at 3%.[1]
As of 2013[update], the container terminal at thePort of Djibouti handles the bulk of the nation's trade. About 70% of the seaport's activity consists of imports to and exports from neighboringEthiopia, which depends on the harbour as its main maritime outlet.[187] As of 2018, 95% of Ethiopian transit cargo was handled by the Port of Djibouti.[188] The port also serves as an international refueling center and transshipment hub.[1] In 2012, the Djiboutian government in collaboration with DP World started construction of theDoraleh Container Terminal,[189] a third major seaport intended to further develop the national transit capacity.[1] A $396 million project, it has the capacity to accommodate 1.5 million twenty foot container units annually.[189]
Djibouti was ranked the 177th safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings.[190] To improve the environment for direct foreign investment, the Djibouti authorities in conjunction with various non-profit organizations have launched a number of development projects aimed at highlighting the country's commercial potential. The government has also introduced new private sector policies targeting high interest and inflation rates, including relaxing the tax burden on enterprises and allowing exemptions on consumption tax.[189]Additionally, efforts have been made to lower the estimated 60% urban unemployment rate by creating more job opportunities through investment in diversified sectors. Funds have especially gone toward building telecommunications infrastructure and increasing disposable income by supporting small businesses. Owing to its growth potential, the fishing and agro-processing sector, which represents around 15% of GDP, has also enjoyed rising investment since 2008.[189]
To expand the modest industrial sector, a 56 megawatt geothermal power plant slated to be completed by 2018 is being constructed with the help ofOPEC, theWorld Bank and theGlobal Environmental Facility. The facility is expected to solve the recurring electricity shortages, decrease the nation's reliance on Ethiopia for energy, reduce costly oil imports for diesel-generated electricity, and thereby buttress the GDP and lower debt.[189]
The Djibouti firm Salt Investment (SIS) began a large-scale operation to industrialize the plentiful salt in Djibouti'sLake Assal region. Operating at an annual capacity of 4 million tons, the desalination project has lifted export revenues, created more job opportunities, and provided more fresh water for the area's residents.[1][189] In 2012, the Djibouti government also enlisted the services of theChina Harbor Engineering Company Ltd for the construction of an ore terminal. Worth $64 million, the project enabled Djibouti to export a further 5,000 tons of salt per year to markets in Southeast Asia.[191]
Djibouti's gross domestic product expanded by an average of more than 6 percent per year, from US$341 million in 1985 to US$1.5 billion in 2015
Djibouti's gross domestic product expanded by an average of more than 6 percent per year, from US$341 million in 1985 to US$1.5 billion in 2015. TheDjiboutian franc is the currency of Djibouti. It is issued by theCentral Bank of Djibouti, the country'smonetary authority. Since the Djiboutian franc is pegged to the U.S. dollar, it is generally stable and inflation is not a problem. This has contributed to the growing interest in investment in the country.[189][192][193]
As of 2010[update], 10 conventional and Islamic banks operate in Djibouti. Most arrived within the past few years, including the Somali money transfer companyDahabshiil and BDCD, a subsidiary of Swiss Financial Investments. The banking system had previously been monopolized by two institutions: the Indo-Suez Bank and the Commercial and Industrial Bank (BCIMR).[192] To assure a robust credit and deposit sector, the government requires commercial banks to maintain 30% of shares in the financial institution;[clarification needed] a minimum of 300 million Djiboutian francs in up-front capital is mandatory for international banks. Lending has likewise been encouraged by the creation of a guarantee fund, which allows banks to issue loans to eligible small- and medium-sized businesses without first requiring a large deposit or other collateral.[189]
Saudi investors are also reportedly exploring the possibility of linking theHorn of Africa with theArabian Peninsula via a 28.5-kilometre-long (17.7 mi)[194] oversea bridge through Djibouti, referred to as theBridge of the Horns. The investorTarek bin Laden has been linked to the project. In June 2010, Phase I of the project was delayed.[195]
TheDjibouti–Ambouli International Airport inDjibouti City, the country's only international airport, serves many intercontinental routes with scheduled and chartered flights.Air Djibouti is the flag carrier of Djibouti and is the country's largest airline.
Car ferries pass theGulf of Tadjoura from Djibouti City toTadjoura. There is thePort of Doraleh west of Djibouti City, which is the main port of Djibouti. The Port of Doraleh is the terminal of the new Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway. In addition to the Port of Doraleh, which handles general cargo and oil imports, Djibouti (2018) has three other major ports for the import and export of bulk goods and livestock, thePort of Tadjourah (potash), theDamerjog Port (livestock) and thePort of Goubet (salt). Almost 95% of Ethiopia's imports and exports move through Djiboutian ports.[citation needed]
The Djiboutian highway system is named according to the road classification. Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully asphalted (throughout their entire length) and in general they carry traffic between all the major towns in Djibouti.
Telecommunications in Djibouti fall under the authority of the Ministry of Communication.[201]
Djibouti Telecom is the sole provider of telecommunication services. It mostly utilizes a microwave radio relay network. A fiber-optic cable is installed in the capital, whereas rural areas are connected via wireless local loop radio systems. Mobile cellular coverage is primarily limited to the area in and around Djibouti city. As of 2015[update], 23,000 telephone main lines and 312,000 mobile/cellular lines were in use. TheSEA-ME-WE 3submarine cable operates toJeddah,Suez, Sicily,Marseille,Colombo, Singapore and beyond. Telephonesatellite earth stations include 1Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1Arabsat. Medarabtel is the regional microwave radio relay telephone network.[1]
Radio Television of Djibouti is the state-owned national broadcaster. It operates the sole terrestrial TV station, as well as the two domestic radio networks onAM 1,FM 2, and shortwave 0. Licensing and operation of broadcast media is regulated by the government.[1] Movie theaters include the Odeon Cinema in the capital.[202]
As of 2012[update], there were 215 local internet service providers. Internet users comprised around 99,000 individuals (2015). The internet country top-level domain is.dj.[1]
The main print newspapers are owned by the government: the French-language dailyLa Nation, the English weeklyDjibouti Post, and the Arabic weeklyAl-Qarn. There is also a statenews agency, Agence Djiboutienne d'Information. Non-government news websites are based abroad; for instance,La Voix de Djibouti operates out of Belgium.[203]
Tourism in Djibouti is one of the growing economic sectors of the country and is an industry that generates less than 80,000 arrivals per year, mostly the family and friends of the soldiers stationed in the country's major naval bases.[204] Although the numbers are on the rise, there are talks of the visa on arrival being stopped, which could limit tourism growth.
Infrastructure makes it difficult for tourists to travel independently and costs of private tours are high. Since the re-opening of the train line from Addis Ababa to Djibouti in January 2018,[205] travel by land has also resumed. Djibouti's two main geological marvels, Lake Abbe and Lake Assal, are the country's top tourist destinations. The two sites draw[206] hundreds of tourists every year looking for remote places that are not visited by many.
Djibouti has an installed electrical power generating capacity of 126 MW from fuel oil and diesel plants.[207] In 2002 electrical power output was put at 232 GWh, with consumption at 216 GWh. At 2015, per capita annual electricity consumption is about 330 kilowatt-hours (kWh); moreover, about 45% of the population does not have access to electricity,[207] and the level of unmet demand in the country's power sector is significant. Increasedhydropower imports fromEthiopia, which satisfies 65% of Djibouti's demand, will play a significant role in boosting the country's renewable energy supply.[207] The geothermal potential has generated particular interest in Japan, with 13 potential sites; they have already started the construction on one site near Lake Assal. The construction of the photovoltaic power station (solar farms) in Grand Bara will generate 50 MW capacity.
Source: World Bank[208] to 2018; 2024 Census by Institut National de la Statistique de Djibouti, INSTAD.
Djibouti had a population of 1,066,809 inhabitants at the Census held on 20 May 2024.[177] It is amultiethnic country. The local population grew rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century, increasing from about 69,589 in 1955 to around 869,099 by 2015. The two largest ethnic groups native to Djibouti are theSomalis (60%) and theAfar (35%).[1] TheSomali clan component is mainly composed of theIssa (who make up 33%),[209] followed by theGadabuursi (15-20%) and theIsaaq (13.3-20%).[209][210][211] The remaining 5% of Djibouti's population primarily consists ofYemeni Arabs,Ethiopians andEuropeans (French andItalians). Approximately 76% of local residents are urban dwellers; the remainder arepastoralists.[1] Djibouti also hosts a number of immigrants and refugees from neighboring states, with Djibouti City nicknamed the "French Hong Kong in the Red Sea" due to its cosmopolitan urbanism.[212] Djibouti's location on the eastern coast of Africa makes it a hub of regionalmigration, with Somalis, Yemenis, and Ethiopians traveling through the country en route to theGulf andnorthern Africa. Djibouti has received a massive influx of migrants fromYemen.[135][213]
Djibouti is amultilingual nation.[1] The majority of local residents speakSomali (60%) andAfar (35%) as first languages. They are themother tongues of the Somali and Afar ethnic groups, respectively. Both languages belong to the largerAfroasiaticCushitic family.Northern Somali is the main dialect spoken in the country and in neighbouring Somaliland, in contrast toBenadiri Somali which is the main dialect spoken in Somalia.[215] There are two official languages in Djibouti:Arabic andFrench.[216]
Arabic is of religious importance. In formal settings, it consists ofModern Standard Arabic. Colloquially, about 59,000 local residents speak theTa'izzi-Adeni Arabic dialect, also known asDjibouti Arabic. French serves as a statutory national language. It was inherited from the colonial period, and is the primary language of instruction. Around 17,000 Djiboutians speak it as a first language. Immigrant languages includeOmani Arabic (38,900 speakers),Amharic (1,400 speakers), andGreek (1,000 speakers).[217]
Djibouti's population is predominantlyMuslim.Islam is observed by around 98% of the nation's population (approximately 891,000 as of 2022[update]).[218] As of 2012[update], 94% of the population was Muslim whereas the remaining 6% of residents are Christian adherents.[1]
Islam entered the region very early on, as a group of persecuted Muslims had sought refuge across theRed Sea in theHorn of Africa at the urging of the Islamic prophetMuhammad. In 1900, during the early part of the colonial era, there were virtually no Christians in the territories, with only about 100–300 followers coming from the schools and orphanages of the few Catholic missions in theFrench Somaliland. The Constitution of Djibouti names Islam as the solestate religion, and also provides for the equality of citizens of all faiths (Article 1) and freedom of religious practice (Article 11).[157][158] Most local Muslims adhere to theSunni denomination, following theShafi'i school. Thenon-denominational Muslims largely belong toSufi orders of varying schools.[219] According to theInternational Religious Freedom Report 2008, while Muslim Djiboutians have the legal right to convert to or marry someone from another faith, converts may encounter negative reactions from their family and clan or from society at large, and they often face pressure to go back to Islam.[220]
TheDiocese of Djibouti serves the small localCatholic population, which it estimates numbered around 7,000 individuals in 2006.[221]
Entrance to the ISSS Faculty of Medicine in Djibouti City
Thelife expectancy at birth is around 64.7 for both males and females. Fertility is at 2.35 children per woman.[1] In Djibouti there are about 18 doctors per 100,000 persons.[224]
The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Djibouti is 300. This is compared with 461.6 in 2008 and 606.5 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate per 1,000 births is 95 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality are 37. In Djibouti the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 6 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women 1 in 93.[225]
About 93.1% of Djibouti's women and girls have undergonefemale genital mutilation (FGM, sometimes referred to as 'female circumcision'),[226] a pre-marital custom mainly endemic to Northeast Africa and parts of the Near East.[227][228] Although legally proscribed in 1994, the procedure is still widely practiced, as it is deeply ingrained in the local culture.[229] Encouraged and performed by women in the community, FGM is primarily intended to deter promiscuity and to offer protection from assault.[229][230] About 94% of Djibouti's male population have also reportedly undergonemale circumcision, a figure in line with adherence to Islam; theShafi'i school of Islam, the predominantmadhhab in the Horn of Africa, requires circumcision of males and females.[231][232]
Education is a priority for the government of Djibouti. As of 2009[update], it allocates 20.5% of its annual budget to scholastic instruction.[233]
Djiboutian women participating in the Global Pulse educational initiative (2010)
The Djiboutian educational system was initially formulated to cater to a limited pupil base. As such, the schooling framework was largely elitist and drew considerably from the French colonial paradigm, which was ill-suited to local circumstances and needs.[233]
In the late 1990s, the Djiboutian authorities revised the national educational strategy and launched a broad-based consultative process involving administrative officials, teachers, parents, national assembly members and NGOs. The initiative identified areas in need of attention and produced concrete recommendations on how to go about improving them. The government subsequently prepared a comprehensive reform plan aimed at modernizing the educational sector over the 2000–10 period. In August 2000, it passed an official Education Planning Act and drafted a medium-term development plan for the next five years. The fundamental academic system was significantly restructured and made compulsory; it now consists of five years of primary school and four years of middle school. Secondary schools also require a Certificate of Fundamental Education for admission. In addition, the new law introduced secondary-level vocational instruction and established university facilities in the country.[233]
As a result of the Education Planning Act and the medium-term action strategy, substantial progress has been registered throughout the educational sector.[233] In particular, school enrollment, attendance, and retention rates have all steadily increased, with some regional variation. From 2004 to 2005 to 2007–08, net enrollments of girls in primary school rose by 18.6%; for boys, it increased 8.0%. Net enrollments in middle school over the same period rose by 72.4% for girls and 52.2% for boys. At the secondary level, the rate of increase in net enrollments was 49.8% for girls and 56.1% for boys.[234]
The Djiboutian government has especially focused on developing and improving institutional infrastructure and teaching materials, including constructing new classrooms and supplying textbooks. At the post-secondary level, emphasis has also been placed on producing qualified instructors and encouraging out-of-school youngsters to pursue vocational training.[233] As of 2012[update], the literacy rate in Djibouti was estimated at 70%.[235]
Traditional wood-carved jar fromOue'a in theTadjourah region
Djiboutian attire reflects the region's hot and arid climate. When not dressed in Western clothing such as jeans and T-shirts, men typically wear themacawiis, which is a traditionalsarong-like garment worn around the waist. Many nomadic people wear a loosely wrapped white cotton robe called atobe that goes down to about the knee, with the end thrown over the shoulder (much like a Romantoga).
Women typically wear thedirac, which is a long, light, diaphanousvoile dress made of cotton or polyester that is worn over a full-lengthhalf-slip and a bra. Married women tend to sport head-scarves referred to asshash and often cover their upper body with ashawl known asgarbasaar. Unmarried or young women do not always cover their heads. Traditional Arabian garb such as the malejellabiya (jellabiyaad in Somali) and the femalejilbāb is also commonly worn. For some occasions such as festivals, women may adorn themselves with specialized jewelry and head-dresses similar to those worn by theBerber tribes of theMaghreb.[236]
A lot of Djibouti's original art is passed on and preserved orally, mainly through song. Many examples of Islamic, Ottoman, and French influences can also be noted in the local buildings, which contain plasterwork, carefully constructedmotifs, andcalligraphy.
Theoud is a common instrument in traditional Djibouti music.
Somalis have a rich musical heritage centered on traditional Somalifolklore. Most Somali songs arepentatonic. That is, they only use fivepitches peroctave in contrast to aheptatonic (seven note) scale such as themajor scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia,Sudan or theArabian Peninsula, but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between lyricists (midho), songwriters (laxan) and singers (codka or "voice").Balwo is a Somali musical style centered on love themes that is popular in Djibouti.[237]
Traditional Afar music resembles the folk music of other parts of theHorn of Africa such asEthiopia; it also contains elements ofArabic music. The history of Djibouti is recorded in the poetry and songs of its nomadic people, and goes back thousands of years to a time when the peoples of Djibouti traded hides and skins for the perfumes and spices of ancientEgypt,India and China. Afar oral literature is also quite musical. It comes in many varieties, including songs for weddings, war, praise and boasting.[238]
Djibouti has a long tradition of poetry. Several well-developed Somali forms of verse include thegabay,jiifto,geeraar,wiglo,'buraanbur,beercade,afarey andguuraw. Thegabay (epic poem) has the most complex length and meter, often exceeding 100 lines. It is considered the mark of poetic attainment when a young poet is able to compose such verse, and is regarded as the height of poetry. Groups of memorizers and reciters (hafidayaal) traditionally propagated the well-developed art form. Poems revolve around several main themes, includingbaroorodiiq (elegy),amaan (praise),jacayl (romance),guhaadin (diatribe),digasho (gloating) andguubaabo (guidance). The baroorodiiq is composed to commemorate the death of a prominent poet or figure.[239] The Afar are familiar with theginnili, a kind of warrior-poet and diviner, and have a rich oral tradition of folk stories. They also have an extensive repertoire of battle songs.[240]
Additionally, Djibouti has a long tradition of Islamic literature. Among the most prominent historical works is the medievalFutuh Al-Habash by Shihāb al-Dīn, which chronicles theAdal Sultanate'sConquest of Abyssinia during the 16th century.[241] In recent years, a number of politicians and intellectuals have also penned memoirs or reflections on the country.
Recently, theWorld Archery Federation has helped to implement the Djibouti Archery Federation, and an international archery training center is being created inArta to support archery development in East Africa and Red Sea area.[citation needed]
Djiboutian cuisine is a mixture ofSomali,Afar,Yemeni, andFrench cuisine, with some additionalSouth Asian (especiallyIndian) culinary influences. Local dishes are commonly prepared using a lot of Middle Eastern spices, ranging fromsaffron tocinnamon. Grilled Yemeni fish, opened in half and often cooked in tandoori style ovens, are a local delicacy. Spicy dishes come in many variations, from the traditionalFah-fah or "Soupe Djiboutienne" (spicy boiled beef soup), to theyetakelt wet (spicy mixed vegetable stew).Xalwo (pronounced "halwo") orhalva is a popular confection eaten during festive occasions, such asEid celebrations or wedding receptions. Halva is made from sugar,corn starch,cardamom powder,nutmeg powder andghee. Peanuts are sometimes added to enhance texture and flavor.[242] After meals, homes are traditionally perfumed usingincense (cuunsi) orfrankincense (lubaan), which is prepared inside an incense burner referred to as adabqaad.
^The Djiboutian–Somali border isde jure controlled by the internationally recognized Federal Republic of Somalia, but isde facto under the control of the unrecognizedRepublic of Somaliland.[10][11]
^"Djibouti: Freedom in the World 2024 Country Report". Freedom House. Retrieved23 January 2025.While Djibouti technically has a multiparty political system, the ruling Union for a Presidential Majority (UMP) uses authoritarian means to maintain its dominant position... Other electoral provisions favor the dominant party, for example by awarding at least 80 percent of the seats in each multimember parliamentary district to the party that wins a majority in that district.
^Walter Raunig, Steffen Wenig (2005).Afrikas Horn. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 439.ISBN978-3447051750.Archived from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved7 September 2014.
^El-Sayed Mahfouz:Amenemhat IV at Wadi Gawasis, Bulletin de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale A. (BIFAO) 2010, vol. 110, [165–173, 485, 491 [11 p.],ISBN978-2-7247-0583-6, see also[1]
^Manansala, Paul (1994).The Naga race. University of Michigan: Firma KLM. p. 89. Retrieved28 June 2019.
^Dr. Muhammed Abdul Nayeem, (1990). Prehistory and Protohistory of the Arabian Peninsula. Hyderabad. ISBN.
^Simson Najovits (2004)Egypt, Trunk of the Tree, Volume 2. Algora Publishing. p. 258.ISBN978-0875862569
^Joyce Tyldesley (1996)Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh. Penguin Books. p. 147.ISBN9780141929347
^Breasted, John Henry (1906–1907),Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest, collected, edited, and translated, with Commentary, vol. 1, University of Chicago Press, pp. 246–295
^abMohamed Haji Mukhtar,Historical Dictionary of Somalia, new edn, African Historical Dictionary Series, 87 (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2003), s.v.Awdal [p. 44];ISBN0810843447
^Briggs, Phillip (2012).Somaliland. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 7.ISBN978-1841623719.Archived from the original on 12 October 2014. Retrieved21 December 2016.
^Ewald Wagner (1991), The Genealogy of the later Walashma' Sultans of Adal and Harar, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 141, No. 2 (1991), pp. 376–386
^Pankhurst, Richard (1982).History Of Ethiopian Towns. Steiner. p. 57.ISBN9783515032049.
^Pankhurst, Richard (1982).History Of Ethiopian Towns. Steiner. p. 58.ISBN9783515032049.
^J. Spencer Trimingham,Islam in Ethiopia (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 74 and note explains the discrepancy in the sources.
^Budge,A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia, 1928 (Oosterhout, the Netherlands: Anthropological Publications, 1970), p. 302.
^Mordechai, Abir.Ethiopia And The Red Sea(PDF). Hebrew University of Jerusalem. pp. 26–27.Archived(PDF) from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved22 March 2023.
^abBausi, Alessandro (2010).Tewodros. Encyclopedia Aethiopica. p. 930.ISBN9783447062466.Archived from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved18 March 2023.
^Northeast African Studies. Vol. 11. African Studies Center, Michigan State University. 1989. p. 115.Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved12 May 2020.
^Fani, Sara (2017).HornAfr 6thField Mission Report(PDF). University of Copenhagen. p. 8.Archived(PDF) from the original on 14 January 2020. Retrieved7 September 2021.
^Abir, Mordechai (1968).Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the Re-unification of the Christian Empire (1769–1855). London: Longmans. p. 15. Abir defines theSahil as "the coast," which stretched from theGulf of Tadjoura toCape Guardafui
^abAmerican Universities Field Staff (1968)Northeast Africa series, Volume 15, Issue 1, p. 3.
^abAlvin J. Cottrell, Robert Michael Burrell, Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies,The Indian Ocean: its political, economic, and military importance, (Praeger: 1972), p.166.
^"Djibouti". Living National Treasures.Archived from the original on 3 August 2013. Retrieved27 February 2013.
^International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources; Norway. Direktoratet for utviklingshjelp (1989).The IUCN Sahel studies 1989. IUCN. pp. 95, 104.ISBN978-2-88032-977-8.Archived from the original on 1 January 2014. Retrieved28 May 2011.
^Anglin, Kevin; Blond, Becca and Carillet, Jean-Bernard (2004)Africa on a Shoestring. London: Lonely Planet. p. 698.ISBN978-1740594622
^DIRECTORATE OF INTELLIGENCE, INTELLIGENCE MEMORANDUM (1967)."French Somaliland"(PDF).Intelligence Memorandum. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 23 January 2017.
^Cutbill, Catherine C.; Schraeder, Peter J. (22 August 2019)."Djibouti: Language".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved18 December 2020.
^Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (2001)Culture and Customs of Somalia, Greenwood Press. pp. 75–76.ISBN9780313313332
^Phillips, Matt and Carillet, Jean-Bernard (2006)Lonely Planet Ethiopia and Eritrea, Lonely Planet. p. 301.ISBN9781741044362
^Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir ʻArabfaqīh (2003).The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century. Translated by Paul Stenhouse; Richard Pankhurst. Tsehai Publishers & Distributors. p. 77.ISBN9780972317269.Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved20 June 2015.
Ebsworth, W. A. (1953). "Jibouti and Madagascar in the 1939–45 War".Journal of the Royal United Service Institution.98 (592):564–68.doi:10.1080/03071845309422199.
.svg)
Meunier_Alexandre_btv1b53062311r_1.jpg)
