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Divisionism, also calledchromoluminarism, is the characteristic style inNeo-Impressionist painting defined by the separation of colors into individual dots or patches that interact optically.[1][2]
By requiring the viewer to combine the colors optically instead of physically mixingpigments, Divisionists believed that they were achieving the maximumluminosity scientifically possible.Georges Seurat founded the style around 1884 as chromoluminarism, drawing from his understanding of the scientific theories ofMichel Eugène Chevreul,Ogden Rood andCharles Blanc, among others. Divisionism developed along with another style,Pointillism, which is defined specifically by the use of dots of paint and does not necessarily focus on the separation of colors.[1][3]
| A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte | |
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| Artist | Georges Seurat |
| Year | 1884–1886 |
| Medium | Oil on canvas |
| Dimensions | 207.6 cm × 308 cm (81.7 in × 121.3 in) |
| Location | Art Institute of Chicago,Chicago |
| Portrait of Félix Fénéon | |
|---|---|
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| Artist | Paul Signac |
| Year | 1890 |
| Medium | Oil on canvas |
| Dimensions | 73.5 cm × 92.5 cm (28.9 in × 36.4 in) |
| Location | The Museum of Modern Art,New York |
| Self-Portrait with Felt Hat | |
|---|---|
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| Artist | Vincent van Gogh |
| Year | 1888 |
| Medium | Oil on canvas |
| Dimensions | 44 cm × 37.5 cm (17.3 in × 14.8 in) |
| Location | Van Gogh Museum,Amsterdam |
| La danse, Bacchante | |
|---|---|
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| Artist | Jean Metzinger |
| Year | 1906 |
| Medium | Oil on canvas |
| Dimensions | 73 cm × 54 cm (28.7 in × 21.2 in) |
| Location | Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller, Otterlo, Netherlands |
| L'homme à la tulipe (Portrait de Jean Metzinger) | |
|---|---|
_1906.jpg) | |
| Artist | Robert Delaunay |
| Year | 1906 |
| Medium | Oil on canvas |
| Dimensions | 72.4 cm × 48.5 cm (28.5 in × 19.1 in) |
Divisionism is the technique of painting separate dots or patches of different colors in close proximity that interact optically in the viewer's perception to generate more luminous colors. The paints are not actually mixed but viewed close together, so the separate colors of light reflected by the paints mixes in the eye and brain; the process is called additive mixing[4] and is also used by computer monitors.[5] This is different from mixing different paints together to produce a new color by subtractive mixing,[6] which is also howlaser printers produce colors.[5] Despite the theory, Seurat's paintings don't actually use true additive mixture, since the colors reflected by his paints as he used them don't actually mix in the eye. Instead, Seurat used highly contrasting colors in close proximity, but not close enough to mix additively; this effect is called simultaneous contrast, which creates a mild shimmering appearance and slightly increases the colors' apparent visual intensity.[4][7]
Impressionism originated inFrance in the 1870s, and is characterized by the use of quick, short, broken brushstrokes to accurately capture the momentary effects of light and atmosphere in an outdoor scene. The Impressionists sought to create an "impression" of a momentary scene as perceived by the viewer, rather than a mechanically precise replication of the scene. Divisionism, also known asPointillism, developed from Impressionism in the 1880s. The Divisionists used a technique of placing small, distinct dots of color next to one another on the canvas, rather than mixing the colors on thepalette. This created a more vibrant and dynamic effect, but also required a higher level of skill and precision. Neo-Impressionism emerged in the late 19th century, used more precise and geometric shapes to build compositions and was strongly influenced by the scientific study ofcolor theory and optical color effects, to create a more harmonious and luminous painting.[8][9][10][11]
Scientists or artists whose theories of light or color had some impact on the development of Divisionism includeCharles Henry,Charles Blanc,David Pierre Giottino Humbert de Superville, David Sutter,Michel Eugène Chevreul,Ogden Rood andHermann von Helmholtz.[2]
Divisionism, along with the Neo-Impressionism movement as a whole, found its beginnings in Georges Seurat's masterpiece,A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte. Seurat had received classical training at theÉcole des Beaux-Arts, and, as such, his initial works reflected theBarbizon style. In 1883, Seurat and some of his colleagues began exploring ways to express as much light as possible on the canvas.[12] By 1884, with the exhibition of his first major work,Bathers at Asnières, as well as croquetons of the island ofÎle de la Jatte, his style began taking form with an awareness of Impressionism, but it was not until he finishedLa Grande Jatte in 1886 that he established his theory of chromoluminarism. In fact,La Grande Jatte was not initially painted in the Divisionist style, but he reworked the painting in the winter of 1885–86, enhancing its optical properties in accordance with his interpretation of scientific theories of color and light.[13]
Charles Blanc'sGrammaire des arts du dessin introduced Seurat to the theories of color and vision that would inspire chromoluminarism. Blanc's work, drawing from the theories of Michel Eugène Chevreul andEugène Delacroix, stated that optical mixing would produce more vibrant and pure colors than the traditional process of mixing pigments.[12] Mixing pigments physically is asubtractive process with cyan, magenta and yellow being theprimary colors. On the other hand, if colored light is mixed together, anadditive mixture results, a process in which the primary colors are red, green and blue.
In Divisionist color theory, artists interpreted the scientific literature through making light operate in one of the following contexts:[12]
Seurat's theories intrigued many of his contemporaries, as other artists seeking a reaction against Impressionism joined the Neo-Impressionist movement.Paul Signac, in particular, became one of the main proponents of divisionist theory, especially after Seurat's death in 1891. In fact, Signac's book,D’Eugène Delacroix au Néo-Impressionnisme, published in 1899, coined the term Divisionism and became widely recognized as the manifesto of Neo-Impressionism.[3]
In addition to Signac, otherFrench artists, largely through associations in theSociété des Artistes Indépendants, adopted some Divisionist techniques, includingCamille andLucien Pissarro,Albert Dubois-Pillet,Charles Angrand,Maximilien Luce,Henri-Edmond Cross andHippolyte Petitjean.[13] Additionally, through Paul Signac's advocacy of Divisionism, an influence can be seen in some of the works ofVincent van Gogh,Henri Matisse,Jean Metzinger,Robert Delaunay andPablo Picasso.[13][14]
In 1907 Metzinger and Delaunay were singled out by the criticLouis Vauxcelles as Divisionists who used large, mosaic-like 'cubes' to construct small but highly symbolic compositions.[15] Both artists had developed a new sub-style that had great significance shortly thereafter within the context of their Cubist works.Piet Mondrian,Jan Sluijters andLeo Gestel, in the Netherlands, developed a similar mosaic-like Divisionist technique circa 1909. TheFuturists later (1909–1916) would adapt the style, in part influenced byGino Severini's Parisian experience (from 1907), into their dynamic paintings and sculpture.[16]
The influence of Seurat and Signac on some Italian painters became evident in the First Triennale in 1891 inMilan. Spearheaded byGrubicy de Dragon, and codified later byGaetano Previati in hisPrincipi scientifici del divisionismo of 1906, a number of painters mainly in Northern Italy experimented to various degrees with these techniques.
Pellizza da Volpedo applied the technique to social (and political) subjects; in this he was joined byMorbelli andLongoni. Among Pellizza's Divisionist works wereSperanze deluse (1894) andIl sole nascente (1904).[17] It was, however, in the subject of landscapes that divisionism found strong advocates, includingGiovanni Segantini, Gaetano Previati, Angelo Morbelli andMatteo Olivero. Further adherents in paintinggenre subjects werePlinio Nomellini,Rubaldo Merello,Giuseppe Cominetti,Camillo Innocenti,Enrico Lionne andArturo Noci. Divisionism was also in important influence in the work ofFuturistsGino Severini (Souvenirs de Voyage, 1911);Giacomo Balla (Arc Lamp, 1909);[18]Carlo Carrà (Leaving the scene, 1910); andUmberto Boccioni (The City Rises, 1910).[1][19][20]
Divisionism quickly received both negative and positive attention fromart critics, who generally either embraced or condemned the incorporation of scientific theories in the Neo-Impressionist techniques. For example,Joris-Karl Huysmans spoke negatively of Seurat's paintings, saying "Strip his figures of the colored fleas that cover them, underneath there is nothing, no thought, no soul, nothing".[21] Leaders of Impressionism, such asMonet andRenoir, refused to exhibit with Seurat, and evenCamille Pissarro, who initially supported Divisionism, later spoke negatively of the technique.[21]
While most divisionists did not receive much critical approval, some critics were loyal to the movement, including notablyFélix Fénéon,Arsène Alexandre andAntoine de la Rochefoucauld.[14]
Although Divisionist artists strongly believed their style was founded in scientific principles, some people believe that there is evidence that Divisionists misinterpreted some basic elements ofoptical theory.[22] For example, one of these misconceptions can be seen in the general belief that the Divisionist method of painting allowed for greater luminosity than previous techniques. Additive luminosity is only applicable in the case of colored light, not juxtaposed pigments; in reality, the luminosity of two pigments next to each other is just the average of their individual luminosities.[22] Furthermore, it is not possible to create a color using optical mixture that could not also be created by physical mixture. Logical inconsistencies can also be found with the Divisionist exclusion of darker colors and their interpretation of simultaneous contrast.[22]
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