Dicaearchus of Messana (/ˌdɪkeɪˈɑːrkəs ...məˈsɑːnə/;Ancient Greek:ΔικαίαρχοςDikaiarkhos;c. 370/350 – c. post 323 BC), also writtenDikaiarchos (/ˈdɪkaɪɑːrk/), was aGreek philosopher,geographer and author. Dicaearchus was a student ofAristotle in theLyceum. Very little of his work remains extant. He wrote ongeography and the history ofGreece, of which his most important work was hisLife of Greece. Although modern scholars often consider him a pioneer in the field ofcartography, this is based on a misinterpretation of a reference in Cicero[1] to Dicaearchus'stabulae, which does not refer to any maps made by Dicaearchus but is a pun on account books and refers to Dicaearchus'sDescent into the Sanctuary of Trophonius.[2] He also wrote books on ancient Greek poets, philosophy and politics.
He was the son of one Pheidias, and born atMessana in Sicily,[3]Magna Graecia, though he passed part of his life inGreece, and especially inAthens and thePeloponnesus.[4] He also travelled to make his measurements of mountains. He was a disciple ofAristotle[5] and a friend ofAristoxenus (a letter written to him is attested in Cicero[6]). Eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century scholarship often considered him a friend ofTheophrastus as well, but this is based on the reference to a man named Theophrastus in the spuriousDescription of Greece, which is transmitted under Dicaearchus's name but actually consists of excerpts from a geographic poem written by Dionysius, son of Calliphon, and from a prose periegesis of Greece, written by Heraclides Criticus. It is uncertain when Dicaearchus died. The only certain terminus post quem is the death ofAlexander the Great (323 BC). According to Pliny,[7] Dicaearchus measured mountains "with the support of the kings" (cura regum). Most scholars identify these kings asCassander andPtolemy I Soter. If this identification is correct, this would put Dicaearchus's activity between 306 and 287 BC. However, the kings might also refer toPhilip III Arrhidaeus andAlexander IV, who were the nominatim kings after the death ofAlexander the Great. If that identification is correct, this moves his activity to 323–317 BC.[8]
Dicaearchus was highly esteemed by the ancients as a philosopher and as a man of most extensive and learned information upon a great variety of things.[9] His work is known only from the many fragmentary quotations of later writers. His works were geographical, political, historical and philosophical; but it is difficult to draw up an accurate list of them, since some that are quoted as distinct works may have been only sections of greater ones, and many titles are only attested once. The fragments extant, moreover, do not always enable us to form a clear notion of the works to which they once belonged. The geographical works of Dicaearchus were, according toStrabo,[10] criticised in many respects byPolybius, thoughStrabo himself was more forgiving of Dicaearchus's ignorance of western and northern Europe, since – unlikePolybius – Dicaearchus had never visited these places.
Dicaearchus wrote on cultural history, music and literature:
Life of Greece (Βίος Ἑλλάδος) – TheBios Hellados, in three books[11] is Dicaearchus's most famous work. It inspired theBios Hellados of Jason (identified asJason of Nysa by theSuda[12] but perhaps a different historian with the same name[13]) andVarro'sDe vita populi Romani andDe gente populi Romani. Only a few fragments actually cite the title,[14] but there are many fragments on cultural history that cite no title and might belong to this work.[15] Dicaearchus apparently attempted to write a biography of the Greek nation from earliest times to the reign ofPhilip II. The most famous passages are those cited by Varro[16] andPorphyry[17] on early history, which suggest a dualistic view of progress. His anthropological theory combined elements from the Hesiodic tradition of decay with progressivist theories. FromHesiod, he adopted the concept of a "golden race", which led a life of bliss but ultimately degenerated because humans became greedy, which led to war. This is combined with progressivist ideas, such as the harsh life of early man and the gradual invention of the arts. In his reconstruction, Dicaearchus distinguished three stages: the golden race, in which man lived off the spontaneously grown fruits of the earth, the pastoral life, in which man started domesticating and hunting animals, and the agricultural life, in which agriculture was introduced.[18] Dicaearchus apparently also explained the saying, "sharing stops choking", as a reference to how humans learned to distribute surplus fairly.[19] Dicaearchus also discussed the origin of thepolis, which he derived from the expansion of families through marriage and the kinship of brothers and sisters.[20] According to Dicaearchus, various stages of this evolution were reflected inpatrae,phratries andphylae, which were social organisations into which citizens were grouped in many cities. Another remarkable feature of theLife of Greece is that the first book discussedEgypt andBabylon, probably as cultural predecessors of the Greeks. In theLife of Greece, Dicaearchus also stated thatEuripides'Medea plagiarised theMedea play of the obscure tragedianNeophron.[21]
On Musical Contests (Περὶ μουσικῶν ἀγώνων) andOn Dionysiac Contests (Περὶ Διονυσιακῶν ἀγώνων) – These works discussed innovations in Greek music and drama. InOn Dionysiac Contests, Dicaearchus probably also treated the story that, when competing at theDionysia with theOedipus Tyrannus,Sophocles was defeated by the tragedianPhilocles,[22] and thatAristophanes'Frogs was staged twice.[23] In this work, Dicaearchus probably also stated that the third actor was introduced to Athenian tragedy bySophocles.[24]
On Alcaeus (Περὶ Ἀλκαίου) – This was a monograph on the Lesbian poetAlcaeus of Mitylene.
Circuit of the Earth (Γῆς περίοδος)[26] – This work was a geographical description of the world as it was then known. Dicaearchus divided the inhabited world into a northern and southern part, separated by a line running from theStrait of Gibraltar throughSicily to theHimalaya.[27] He attempted to calculate the distances between various points on this line. In theCircuit of the Earth, Dicaearchus also treated the famous problem of theflooding of the Nile.
Measurements of Mountains[28] – TheSuda[29] cites the work asMeasurements of Mountains in the Peloponnese (Καταμετρήσεις τῶν ἐν Πελοποννήσῳ ὀρῶν), but other fragments show that Dicaearchus also measured mountains in Thessaly[30] and on Rhodes.[31] The work may have been part of hisCircuit of the Earth. It was the earliest known attempt to measure the heights of various mountains bytriangulation, for which he used adioptra instrument. Dicaearchus's goal was to show that mountains were not as high as people believed and therefore did not impact the sphericity of the earth. Many of his results were later adopted byEratosthenes.
Of a political nature was:
Tripolitikos (Τριπολιτικός)[32] – A work which has been the subject of much dispute. It was probably a political dialogue (perhaps to be identified with the "political meeting" mentioned by Cicero[33]) or a speech. Since the only extant fragment discusses the Spartanpublic meals, some scholars identify it with theSpartan Constitution. Many scholars consider it a work on themixed constitution, but this is based on a misinterpretation of theεἶδος δικαιαρχικόν, mentioned in Photius;[34] the wordδικαιαρχικός does not refer to Dicaearchus but simply means "relating to a just government."[35]
Constitutions – Dicaearchus is said to have written aSpartan Constitution (Πολιτεία Σπαρτιατῶν),Pellenian Constitution (Πελληναίων πολιτεία),Corinthian Constitution (Κορινθίων πολιτεία) andAthenian Constitution (Ἀθηναίων πολιτεία).[36] No fragments survive of these works. TheSpartan Constitution was apparently read annually in the council of theephors inSparta, in the presence of the Spartan youth.[37]
Among his other philosophical works may be mentioned:
On the Soul (Περὶ ψυχῆς)– Dicaearchus wrote two works on the soul: theLesbian Dialogue (Λεσβιακός) and theCorinthian Dialogue (Κορινθιακός), both in three books. The titles refer to the scene where the philosophical dialogue was set, viz. atMytilene inLesbos and atCorinth, respectively. The general title for these two works wasOn the Soul (Περὶ ψυχῆς). In theLesbian Dialogue, Dicaearchus endeavoured to prove that the soul was mortal.[38] In theCorinthian Dialogue, Dicaearchus argued that the soul has no existence outside the body. The first book presented a discussion of learned men about the soul. In the subsequent two books, a man named Pherecrates argued for the non-existence of the soul.[39]
On the Destruction of Men (Latin:De interitu hominum)[40] – This work collected the causes of human destruction and concluded that man himself was the greatest threat. It is uncertain whether "De interitu hominum" is a book title or merely describes the content of the work.[41]
Descent into Sanctuary of Trophonius (Εἰς Τροφωνίου κατάβασις)[42] – A work which consisted of several books. It appears to have been a work on luxury.[43] The title refers to the oracle ofTrophonius inLebadea, where people who wished to consult the oracle had to descend into a cave.Cicero informs us that he translated a section from this work in hisDe re publica.[44] The work may have also contained an account of the degenerate and licentious proceedings of the priests in the cave ofTrophonius.
On Lives (Περὶ βίων) – This was probably a philosophical work on the right way of life.[45] The title is only attested once.[46] The fragments on philosophers (theSeven Sages,Pythagoras andPlato) are usually attributed to this work, though they may belong to other works such as theLife of Greece or theCircuit of the Earth as well. Of particular interest is the fragment on the death ofPythagoras, for which Dicaearchus claims to rely on local oral sources fromSouthern Italy.[47]
On the Sacrifice at Ilium (Περὶ τῆς ἐν Ἰλίῳ ϑυσίας)[48] – The title refers to the sacrifice whichAlexander the Great performed atIlium at the start of his expedition againstDarius III. Together with his belovedHephaestion, he paid honours on the tombs ofAchilles andPatroclus atTroy, probably as a proclamation of their own relationship, which was mirrored on these two mythical heroes. The sole fragment that remains of this work discusses the story that, after the march through theGedrosian Desert,Alexander passionately kissed the eunuchBagoas in a full theatre, to great applause. This suggests that the work may have treatedAlexander's relationships, perhaps as part of a more general discussion on love.[49]
Dicaearchus also wrote speeches:
Olympikos (Ὀλυμπικός),[50]Panathenaikos (Παναθηναϊκός)[51] – These are usually considered either works on contests held at theOlympic Games and thePanathenaic Games or philosophical dialogues. However, the most plausible interpretation is that they were speeches.[52] Indeed, theSuda explicitly calls Dicaearchus an orator (ῥήτωρ).[53]
There is lastly one spurious work and one doubtful work:
Description of Greece (Ἀναγραφὴ τῆς Ἑλλάδος) – This work is spurious. Although it is transmitted under Dicaearchus's name, it actually consists of excerpts from two separate works. One is a geographic work dedicated to "Theophrastus", and consisting of 150iambic lines; theacrostic of the first twenty-three lines shows that it was really the work of one "Dionysius, son of Calliphon". The other work is a prose periegesis entitledOn the Cities in Greece and was written by Heraclides Criticus.[54]
Summaries of the Tales from Euripides and Sophocles (ὑποθέσεις τῶν Εὐριπίδου καὶ Σοφοκλέους μύθων)[55] – This was a collection of plot summaries of the plays ofEuripides andSophocles. Many of these summaries survive in papyri or have been prefaced to the plays ofEuripides in medieval manuscripts. This work is unlikely to have been written by the Peripatetic Dicaearchus. It was probably either wrongly attributed to him or was the work of another man named Dicaearchus, agrammarian ofLacedaemon, who, according to theSuda,[56] was a disciple ofAristarchus.[57]
^Fotiou, A. S. (1981), "Dikaiarchos and the mixed constitution in sixth century Byzantium: new evidence from a treatise on "political science."” Byzantion 51: 533–547; Verhasselt 2018, pp. 24–25, 581–583.
David C. Mirhady, "Dicaearchus of Messana: The Sources, Texts and Translations," in Fortenbaugh, W., Schütrumpf, E., (editors)Dicaearchus of Messana: Text, Translation, and Discussion. Transaction Publishers. (2001).ISBN0-7658-0093-4
Fortenbaugh, W.,Schütrumpf, E., (editors)Dicaearchus of Messana: Text, Translation, and Discussion. Transaction Publishers. (2001).ISBN0-7658-0093-4
Verhasselt, G.Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker Continued. IV. Biography and antiquarian literature, B. History of literature, music, art and culture. Fasc. 9 Dikaiarchos of Messene No. 1400. Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2018.ISBN9789004357419
Wehrli, F.,Dikaiarchos. Die Schule des Aristoteles. Texte und Kommentar, Hft. 1. Schwabe. 2nd edition (1967)
Studies
Alonso-Núñez, J.M., 'Approaches to world history in the Hellenistic period: Dicaearchus and Agatharchides'Athenaeum 85 (1997) 53–67
Bodei Giglioni, G., 'Dicearco e la riflessione sul passato'Rivista Storica Italiana 98 (1986) 629–652
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Dicaearchus (Δυκαίαρχος)".Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. 1. pp. 1000–1002.
