.JPG) A Diablada dance squad passing through the streets during theCarnival. | |
| Genre | Folk dance |
|---|---|
| Inventor | Pre-ColumbianAndean civilizations |
| Year | 1500s |
| Origin | Altiplano region, Bolivia, South America |
TheDiablada, also known as theDanza de los Diablos (English:Dance of the Devils), is anAndeanfolk dance performed in Bolivia, in theAltiplano region of South America, characterized by performers wearing masks and costumes representing thedevil and other characters frompre-Columbian theology and mythology.[1][2] combined with Spanish and Christian elements added during thecolonial era. Many scholars have concluded that the dance is descended from theLlama llama dance in honor of theUru godTiw,[3] and theAymaran ritual to the demonAnchanchu, both originating in pre-ColumbianBolivia[4][5]
While the dance had been performed in the Andean region as early as the 1500s, its name originated in 1789 inOruro, Bolivia, where performers dressed like the devil in parades calledDiabladas. The first organized Diablada group with defined music and choreography appeared in Bolivia in 1904.[2][6] There is also some evidence of the dance originating among miners inPotosi, Bolivia,[7] while regional dances in Peru and Chile may have also influenced the modern version.
Bolivian historians claim that the Diablada originated in that country, and that Oruro should be named as its place of origin under theMasterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity policy promoted byUNESCO; Bolivia has also claimed that performances of the dance in other countries arecultural appropriation.[8][9] Bolivian historians currently maintain that the Diablada dates back 2000 years to the rituals of theUru civilization dedicated to the mythological figureTiw, who protected caves, lakes, and rivers as places of shelter. The dance is believed to have originated as theLlama llama in the ancient settlement of Oruro, which was one of the major centers of the Uru civilization.[10][11] The dance includes references to animals that appear in Uru mythology such as ants, lizards, toads, and snakes.[12][13][14] Bolivian anthropologist Milton Eyzaguirre adds that the ancient cultures of the Bolivian Andes practiced a death cult calledcupay, with that term eventually evolving intosupay or the devil figure in the modern Diablada.[15]
Due tosyncretism caused by Spanish influence in later centuries, Tiw was eventually associated with the devil; Spanish authorities also outlawed several of the ancient traditions but incorporated others into Christian theology.[16] Local and regional Diablada festivals arose during theSpanish colonial period and were eventually consolidated as theCarnaval de Oruro in themodern city of that name.[10]
...The Spanish banned these ceremonies in the seventeenth century, but they continued under the guise of Christian liturgy: the Andean gods were concealed behind Christian icons and the Andean divinities became the Saints. The Ito festival was transformed into a Christian ritual, celebrated on Candlemas (2 February). The traditionalllama llama ordiablada in worship of the Uru god Tiw became the main dance at the Carnival of Oruro....
— Proclamation of "Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity" to the "Carnival of Oruro", UNESCO 2001
Chilean and Peruvian organizations suggest that since the dance has roots in Andean civilizations that existed before the formation of the current national borders, it should belong equally to the three nations.[17] Some Chilean historians concede that the Diablada originated in Bolivia and was adopted for Chile'sFiesta de La Tirana in 1952, though it is also influenced by a similar 16th Century Chilean tradition calledDiablos sueltos.[18]
Some Peruvian historians also concede that the dance originated in Bolivia but was influenced by earlier traditions practiced across the Altiplano region, including some specific to Peru.[19][20] The Peruvian version,Diablada puneña, originated in the late 1500s among theLupaka people in thePuno region, who in turn were influenced by theJesuits; with that dance merging with the Bolivian version in the early 1900s.[21][22] Scholars who defend the Diablada's origins in Peru citeAymaran traditions surrounding the deityAnchanchu that had been documented by 16th Century historianInca Garcilaso de la Vega.[4][23] There is also a version of the Diablada in Ecuador called theDiablada pillareña.[24]
Some historians have theorized that the modern Diablada exhibits influences from Spanish dance traditions. In her bookLa danza de los diablos,Julia Elena Fortún proposed a connection with theCatalanentremés calledBall de diables as performed in the Catalonian communities ofPenedès andTarragona. That dance depicts a struggle betweenLucifer and thearchangel Saint Michael and is first known to have been performed in 1150.[25][26] Catalan scholar Jordi Rius i Mercade has also found similarities between theBall de diables and several Andean dances including the similarly-themedBaile de Diablos de Cobán in Guatemala andDanza de los diablicos de Túcume in Peru.[25]
Those theories contradict the more common theory that the modern Diablada is most influenced by the Spanish practice ofautos sacramentales during which the colonizers introduced Christianity to the natives of the Andes, due to differing conceptions of the devil and his temptations.[27] Theautos sacramentales process has been cited as an influence on the emergence of theDiablada puneña in Peru, shortly after theSpanish conquest of the Inca Empire, as believed by Garcilaso de la Vega.[28] Peruvian scholarNicomedes Santa Cruz and Bolivian anthropologist Freddy Arancibia Andrade have suggested a similar process, with the dance originating among miners who rebelled against the Spanish at Potosi in 1538 while combining the ancient ritual ofTinku with Christian references.[7][29] Andrade has also proposed a similar process among striking miners in 1904 as the origin of the modern version of the Diablada.[7]
Though the traditions of the Diablada were merged with Christianity during the colonial period, the meanings of the original traditions were revived and reassessed during theLatin American wars of independence. The Altiplano region, particularly aroundLake Titicaca, became a center of appreciation for pre-Columbian dance and music.[30] During theBolivian War of Independence, the main religious festival honoring theVirgin of the Candlemas was replaced byCarnival, which allowed for greater acknowledgement of pre-Christian traditions including the Diablada. The present annual Diablada festival was established in Oruro by 1891.[31]
The first institutionalized Diablada dance squad was the Gran Tradicional y Auténtica Diablada Oruro, founded in Bolivia in 1904 by Pedro Pablo Corrales.[32] That squad established a counterpart called the Los Vaporinos in Peru in 1918.[33] A squad from Bolivia was invited to travel to theFiesta de la Tirana in Chile in 1956, and that country's first established squad was called Primera Diablada Servidores Virgen del Carmen, centered inIquique.[34] In 2001, theCarnaval de Oruro was declared one of theMasterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, along with the Diablada and 19 other dances performed at the festival.[35] In 2004, the Bolivian government awarded high national honors to the Gran Tradicional y Auténtica Diablada Oruro for its 100th anniversary.[36]
In its original form, the dance was performed with music by a band of Sikuris, who played thesiku. In modern times the dance is accompanied by an orchestra. Dancers often perform on streets and public squares, but the ritual can also be performed at indoor theaters and arenas. The ritual begins with akrewe featuring Lucifer and Satan with severalChina Supay, or devil women. They are followed by the personifiedseven deadly sins of pride, greed, lust, anger, gluttony, envy, and sloth. Afterwards, a troop of devils come out. They are all led bySaint Michael, with a blouse, short skirt, sword, and shield. During the dance,angels anddemons move continuously. This confrontation between the two sides is eclipsed whenSaint Michael appears and defeats the Devil. The choreography has three versions, each consisting of seven moves.[37]
The music associated with the dance has two parts: the first is known asthe March and the second one is known asthe Devil's Mecapaqueña. Some squads play only one melody or start theMecapaqueña in the fourth movement "by four".[37] Since the second half of the 20th century, dialogue is omitted so the focus is only on the dance.[38]
The Diablada Puneña originated in modern Peru with the in the Lupaka people in 1576, when they combined tenets of Christianity from the autos sacramentales with ancient Aymara traditions.[4][23] Some additional influences from the cult of the Virgin Mary were added in the following century.[22] The Peruvian version of the Diablada was quite different from the Ururo-based Bolivian version until the two merged at the Fiesta de la Candelaria in 1965. However, the Peruvian versions continue to feature homegrown figures like Superman, American Indians, ancient Mexicans, and characters from popular films.[39]
The costumes used in the Peruvian Diablata also include influences from Tibet as well as elements from pre-Columbian Peruvian cultures such as Sechin, Chavin, Nazca, and Mochica.[4] Homegrown masks were produced and sold in Peru starting in 1956.[40] Music for the dance was originally performed on the siku,[41] but that was later replaced by percussionists known as Sicu-Morenos.[39]>
In Chile, the Diablada is performed during theFiesta de La Tirana in the northern region of that country. The festival attracts more than 100,000 visitors annually to the small village ofLa Tirana.[39] The festival is descended from the celebrations for theVirgin of Carmen that began in 1540.[39]
One of the theories about theDiablada de Pillaro (loosely translated as the "Devilish meet of Pillaro") origin says that it was born as a rebellion from the lower classes against the ruling invaders and the Church.[40]
Danza típica de la región de Oruro, en Bolivia, llamada así por la careta y el traje de diablo que usan los bailarines (Typical dance from the region ofOruro, inBolivia, called that way by the mask and devil suit worn by the dancers).
The town of Oruro, situated at an altitude of 3,700 metres in the mountains of western Bolivia and once a pre-Columbian ceremonial site, was an important mining area in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Resettled by the Spanish in 1606, it continued to be a sacred site for the Uru people, who would often travel long distances to perform their rituals, especially for the principal Ito festival. The Spanish banned these ceremonies in the seventeenth century, but they continued under the guise of Christian liturgy: the Andean gods were concealed behind Christian icons and the Andean divinities became the Saints. The Ito festival was transformed into a Christian ritual, celebrated on Candlemas (2 February). The traditional llama llama or diablada in worship of the Uru god Tiw became the main dance at the Carnival of Oruro.
The town of Oruro, situated at an altitude of 3,700 metres in the mountains of western Bolivia and once a pre-Columbian ceremonial site, was an important mining area in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Resettled by the Spanish in 1606, it continued to be a sacred site for the Uru people, who would often travel long distances to perform their rituals, especially for the principal Ito festival. The Spanish banned these ceremonies in the seventeenth century, but they continued under the guise of Christian liturgy: the Andean gods were concealed behind Christian icons and the Andean divinities became the Saints. The Ito festival was transformed into a Christian ritual, celebrated on Candlemas (2 February). The traditional llama llama or diablada in worship of the Uru god Tiw became the main dance at the Carnival of Oruro.
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