Braun ABW30 wall clock designed byDieter Rams andDietrich Lubs [de] (early 1980s)VictorinoxSwiss Army knifeCutlery designed by architect and designerZaha Hadid (2007). The slightly oblique end part of the fork and the spoons, as well as the knife handle, are examples of designing for both aesthetic form and practical function.Early concept design sketches by the architect Erling Viksjø, exploring the relationships between existing and proposed new buildingsBarényi Béla, considered to be the father of safe driving and safety tests, preparing for safety development, which is a core part of the designing process
Adesign is the concept of or proposal for an object,process, orsystem. The worddesign refers to something that is or has been intentionally created by a thinking agent, and is sometimes used to refer to the inherent nature of something – its design. The verbto design expresses the process of developing a design. In some cases, the direct construction of an object without an explicit prior plan may also be considered to be a design (such as in arts and crafts). A design is expected to have a purpose within a specific context, typically aiming to satisfy certaingoals and constraints while taking into accountaesthetic, functional and experiential considerations. Traditional examples of designs includearchitectural andengineering drawings,circuit diagrams,sewing patterns, and less tangible artefacts such asbusiness process models.[1][2]
People who produce designs are calleddesigners. The term 'designer' usually refers to someone who works professionally in one of the various design areas. Within the professions, the word 'designer' is generally qualified by the area of practice (for example: afashion designer, aproduct designer, aweb designer, or aninterior designer), but it can also designate other practitioners such as architects and engineers (see below: Types of designing). A designer's sequence of activities to produce a design is called a design process, with some employing designated processes such asdesign thinking anddesign methods. The process of creating a design can be brief (a quick sketch) or lengthy and complicated, involving considerable research, negotiation, reflection,modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design.
Designing is also a widespread activity outside of the professions of those formally recognized as designers. In his influential bookThe Sciences of the Artificial, the interdisciplinary scientistHerbert A. Simon proposed that, "Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones."[3] According to the design researcherNigel Cross, "Everyone can – and does – design," and "Design ability is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a naturalcognitive function."[4]
The study of design history is complicated by varying interpretations of what constitutes 'designing'. Many design historians, such asJohn Heskett, look to theIndustrial Revolution and the development of mass production.[5] Others subscribe to conceptions of design that include pre-industrial objects and artefacts, beginning their narratives of design in prehistoric times.[6] Originally situated withinart history, the historical development of the discipline of design history coalesced in the 1970s, as interested academics worked to recognize design as a separate and legitimate target for historical research.[7] Early influential design historians include German-British art historianNikolaus Pevsner and Swiss historian and architecture criticSigfried Giedion.
Design education covers the teaching of theory, knowledge, and values in the design of products, services, and environments, with a focus on the development of both particular and general skills for designing. Traditionally, its primary orientation has been to prepare students for professional design practice, based on project work and studio, oratelier, teaching methods.
There are also broader forms of higher education indesign studies anddesign thinking. Design is also a part of general education, for example within the curriculum topic,Design and Technology. The development of design in general education in the 1970s created a need to identify fundamental aspects of 'designerly' ways of knowing, thinking, and acting, which resulted in establishing design as a distinctdiscipline of study.[9]
Substantial disagreement exists concerning how designers in many fields, whether amateur or professional, alone or in teams, produce designs.[10] Design researchers Dorst and Dijkhuis acknowledged that "there are many ways of describing design processes," and compare and contrast two dominant but different views of the design process: as a rational problem-solving process and as a process of reflection-in-action. They suggested that these twoparadigms "represent two fundamentally different ways of looking at the world – positivism andconstructionism."[11] The paradigms may reflect differing views of how designingshould be done and how itactually is done, and both have a variety of names. The problem-solving view has been called "the rational model,"[12] "technical rationality"[13] and "the reason-centric perspective."[14] The alternative view has been called "reflection-in-action,"[13] "coevolution"[15] and "the action-centric perspective."[14]
The rational model was independently developed by Herbert A. Simon,[16][17] an American scientist, and two German engineering design theorists, Gerhard Pahl and Wolfgang Beitz.[18] It posits that:
The action-centric perspective is a label given to a collection of interrelated concepts, which are antithetical to the rational model.[14] It posits that:
No universal sequence of stages is apparent – analysis, design, and implementation are contemporary and inextricably linked.[14]
The action-centric perspective is based on anempiricist philosophy and broadly consistent with theagile approach[28] and methodical development.[29] Substantial empirical evidence supports the veracity of this perspective in describing the actions of real designers.[26] Like the rational model, the action-centric model sees design as informed by research and knowledge.[30]
At least two views of design activity are consistent with the action-centric perspective. Both involve these three basic activities:
In thereflection-in-action paradigm, designers alternate between "framing", "making moves", and "evaluating moves". "Framing" refers to conceptualizing the problem, i.e., defining goals and objectives. A "move" is a tentative design decision. The evaluation process may lead to further moves in the design.[13]
In the sensemaking–coevolution–implementation framework, designers alternate between its three titular activities.Sensemaking includes both framing and evaluating moves. Implementation is the process of constructing the design object. Coevolution is "the process where the design agent simultaneously refines its mental picture of the design object based on its mental picture of the context, and vice versa".[14]
The concept of thedesign cycle is understood as a circular time structure,[31] which may start with the thinking of an idea, then expressing it by the use of visual or verbal means of communication (design tools), the sharing and perceiving of the expressed idea, and finally starting a new cycle with the critical rethinking of the perceived idea. Anderson points out that this concept emphasizes the importance of the means of expression, which at the same time are means of perception of any design ideas.[32]
Philosophy of design is the study of definitions, assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. There are also many informal 'philosophies' for guiding design such as personal values or preferred approaches.
Critical design uses designed artefacts as an embodied critique or commentary on existing values, morals, and practices in a culture. Critical design can make aspects of the future physically present to provoke a reaction.[33][34][35]
Ecological design is a design approach that prioritizes the consideration of the environmental impacts of a product or service, over its whole lifecycle.[36][37] Ecodesign research focuses primarily on barriers to implementation, ecodesign tools and methods, and the intersection of ecodesign with other research disciplines.[38][39]
Participatory design (originally co-operative design, now often co-design) is the practice of collective creativity to design, attempting to actively involve all stakeholders (e.g. employees, partners, customers, citizens, end-users) in the design process to help ensure the result meets their needs and is usable.[40] Recent research suggests that designers create more innovative concepts and ideas when working within a co-design environment with others than they do when creating ideas on their own.[41][42]
Scientific design refers to industrialised design based on scientific knowledge.[43] Science can be used to study the effects and need for a potential or existing product in general and to design products that are based on scientific knowledge. For instance, a scientific design offace masks for COVID-19 mitigation may be based on investigations of filtration performance, mitigation performance,[44][45] thermal comfort,biodegradability and flow resistance.[46][47]
Service design is a term that is used for designing or organizing the experience around a product and the service associated with a product's use. The purpose of service design methodologies is to establish the most effective practices for designing services, according to both the needs of users and the competencies and capabilities of service providers.[48][49][50][51]
Sociotechnical system design, a philosophy and tools for participative designing of work arrangements and supporting processes – for organizational purpose, quality, safety, economics, and customer requirements in core work processes, the quality of peoples experience at work, and the needs of society.
Transgenerational design, the practice of making products and environments compatible with those physical and sensory impairments associated with human aging and which limit major activities of daily living.
User-centered design, which focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end-user of the designed artefact. One aspect of user-centered design isergonomics.
The boundaries between art and design are blurry, largely due to a range of applications both for the term 'art' and the term 'design'.Applied arts can includeindustrial design,graphic design,fashion design, and thedecorative arts which traditionally includes craft objects. Ingraphic arts (2D image making that ranges from photography to illustration), the distinction is often made betweenfine art andcommercial art, based on the context within which the work is produced and how it is traded.
^abcdSchön, D.A. (1983)The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action, Basic Books, USA.ISBN978-0465068784
^abcdefRalph, P. (2010) "Comparing two software design process theories". International Conference on Design Science Research in Information Systems and Technology (DESRIST 2010), Springer, St. Gallen, Switzerland, pp. 139–153.doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13335-0_10.
^Beck, K., Beedle, M., van Bennekum, A., Cockburn, A., Cunningham, W., Fowler, M., Grenning, J., Highsmith, J., Hunt, A., Jeffries, R., Kern, J., Marick, B., Martin, R.C., Mellor, S., Schwaber, K., Sutherland, J., and Thomas, D. (2001)Manifesto for agile software developmentArchived 2021-03-27 at theWayback Machine.
^Truex, D.; Baskerville, R.; and Travis, J. (2000). "Amethodical systems development: The deferred meaning of systems development methods".Accounting, Management and Information Technologies.10 (1):53–79.doi:10.1016/S0959-8022(99)00009-0.
^Fischer, Thomas "Design Enigma. A typographical metaphor for enigmatic processes, including designing", in: T. Fischer, K. De Biswas, J.J. Ham, R. Naka, W.X. Huang,Beyond Codes and Pixels: Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research in Asia, p. 686
^Anderson, Jane (2011)Architectural Design, Basics Architecture 03, Lausanne, AVA academia, p. 40.ISBN978-2-940411-26-9.
^Segelström, Fabian; Raijmakers, Bas; Holmlid, Stefan (January 2009)."Thinking and Doing Ethnography in Service Design"(PDF). Linköping University, Department of Computer and Information Science. Retrieved2018-02-27.
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