Demographics ofMalaysia
Population pyramid of Malaysia in 2020
Population	34,100,000 (2024 est.)
Growth rate	1.03% (2023 est.)
Birth rate	13.2 births/1,000 population (2023 est.)
Death rate	5.8 deaths/1,000 population (2023 est.)
Life expectancy	76.13 years
• male	74.5 years
• female	77.87 years
Fertility rate	1.57 children born/woman (2024 est.)
Infant mortality rate	6.59 deaths/1,000 live births
Net migration rate	1.48 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Age structure
0–14 years	22.46%
15–64 years	69.42%
65 and over	8.12%
Sex ratio
Total	1.05 male(s)/female (2022 est.)
At birth	1.07 male(s)/female
Under 15	1.06 male(s)/female
65 and over	1.14 male(s)/female
Nationality
Nationality	Malaysian
Major ethnic	Malay/Bumiputera (69.4%)[1]
Minor ethnic	Chinese (23.2%) Indian (6.7%) Others (0.7%)
Language
Official	Malay
Spoken	English,Manglish, Mandarin, Tamil andothers

Malaysia is a multi-ethnic country with a diverse population. As of 2024, the official population estimate is about 34.1 million.^[2][3] According to the 2020 census, there were 32,447,385 people including non-citizens, placing Malaysia as the43rd most populous country globally. In 2010, around 5.72 million lived inEast Malaysia and 22.5 million inPeninsular Malaysia. Population distribution is uneven, with about 79 percent of citizens residing in Peninsular Malaysia, which covers less than 40 percent of the country's total land area.^[4]

As of 2017, Malaysia's population was growing at an annual rate of 1.94 percent. Based on projections from the 2010 census, fertility rates among the three largest ethnic groups were estimated at 2.4 children per woman forMalays andBumiputeras, 1.8 forIndians and 1.4 forChinese. Malay fertility rates were about 40 percent higher than those of Indians and 56 percent higher than those of Chinese. By 2023, Malays and other Bumiputeras made up 69.9 percent of the population, while Chinese and Indians comprised 22.8 and 6.6 percent respectively.^[5]

Although the absolute number of Chinese increased from 2.4 million in 1957 to 6.6 million in 2017, their proportion of the population has declined since independence, when they formed around 45 percent ofMalaya.^[6] In contrast, the Malay population grew from approximately 3.1 million in 1957 to 15.5 million in 2017.^[6][7] Due to varioussocioeconomic factors, including differences in fertility rates, migration trends and policy dynamics, the share of non-Malay and non-Bumiputera communities, such as the Chinese and Indians, has gradually declined since 1957.

Censuses were taken in Malaysia in 1970, 1980, 1991, 2000, 2010, and 2020.^[8] The total population is around 32.4 million according to the 2020 census.^[9] The population distribution is highly uneven, with some 20 million residents concentrated in Peninsula Malaysia.^[10] 74.7% of the population is urban.^[11] Due to the rise in labour-intensive industries,^[12] Malaysia is estimated to have over 3 million migrant workers, which is about 10% of the Malaysian population.^[13] The exact numbers are unknown: there are a million legal foreign workers and perhaps another million unauthorised foreigners. The state of Sabah alone had nearly 25% of its 2.7 million population listed as illegal foreign workers in the last census. Sabah based NGOs estimate that out of the 3 million population, 2 million are illegal immigrants.^[14]

Additionally, according to theWorld Refugee Survey 2008, published by theUS Committee for Refugees and Immigrants (USCRI), Malaysia hosts a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 155,700. Of this population, approximately 70,500 refugees and asylum seekers are from the Philippines, 69,700 fromBurma, and 21,800 from Indonesia.^[15] The USCRI named Malaysia as one of the ten worst places for refugees on account of the country's discriminatory practices toward them. Malaysian officials are reported to have turned deportees directly over to human smugglers in 2007, and Malaysia employsRELA, a volunteer militia, to enforce its immigration law.^[15]

Source: National Census 2000,^[16] Department of Statistics Malaysia.

• Putrajaya data is for 2004.
• Population estimates are rounded to the nearest hundred.

Source: National Census 2010,^[17] Department of Statistics Malaysia

Source: National Census 2020,^[1] Department of Statistics Malaysia

Source: Dosm. (n.d.). Department of Statistics Malaysia.https://www.dosm.gov.my/portal-main/release-content/current-population-estimates-2025

Data from July 2010.^[20]

Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2024, July 31). [2024] Current Population Estimates. OpenDOSM.https://open.dosm.gov.my/publications/population_2024.Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2025. [2025] Current Population Estimates. OpenDOSM. Available at:https://open.dosm.gov.my/publications/population_2025 [Accessed 17 October 2025].Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2023, July 31). Current Population Estimates: 2023. OpenDOSM.https://open.dosm.gov.my/publications/population_2023.

Kuala Lumpur is the capital and largest city of Malaysia. Although many executive and judicial branches of the federal government have moved toPutrajaya, Kuala Lumpur is the seat of theParliament of Malaysia, making it the country's legislative capital. It is also the economic and business centre of the country, and is aprimate city. Kuala Lumpur is also the only Alpha-ratedglobal city in Malaysia. Along withSubang Jaya,Klang,Petaling Jaya,Shah Alam,Kajang-Sungai Chua,Ampang Jaya andSelayang it forms the country's largest and most important urban area, theKlang Valley.

George Town, the capital city ofPenang used to be Malaysia's largest and only city until the 1970s when Kuala Lumpur was granted city status. Today, George Town, rated aGamma global city, serves as the financial, industrial and medical tourism hub in the northern region of Malaysia. Together withSeberang Perai in mainland Penang,Sungai Petani,Kulim,Bandar Baharu andYan inKedah, and portions ofKerian andSelama inPerak, it forms theGeorge Town Conurbation, the nation's second largest metropolitan area with a population of over 2.84 million.

Johor Bahru, the capital city ofJohor and the largest state capital city in Malaysia, forms the third largest urban area as well as Malaysia's largest metropolitan area without spanning other states. It is situated at the country's southern end, comprising the cities ofJohor Bahru,Iskandar Puteri andPasir Gudang, along withKulai and Pontian. Located next toSingapore, it is also an important industrial, tourism and commercial hub for Malaysia.

Other major cities in Malaysia includeIpoh,Kota Kinabalu andKuching.

Data from Department of Statistics Malaysia:^{[24][25][26][27][28][29]}

Period	Live births	Deaths	Natural increase
January—December 2024	414,792	198,837	+215,955
January—December 2025	381,757	194,258	+187,499
Difference	–33,035 (-7.96%)	–4,579 (-2.30%)	-28,456
Source:[30]

Data from United Nation:^[31]

^[32]

Registered Births

Total fertility rate (TFR) by state according to year:^[34]

State	2011	2015	2020
Putrajaya	1.44	1.37	2.78
Kuala Lumpur	1.53	1.40	1.49
Penang	1.62	1.51	1.25
Sabah	1.81	1.64	1.33
Selangor	1.96	1.82	1.57
Johor	2.18	1.88	1.94
Melaka	2.23	1.93	1.73
Sarawak	2.23	2.01	1.53
Negeri Sembilan	2.30	2.02	1.96
Perak	2.39	2.05	1.66
Pahang	2.50	2.31	1.94
Perlis	2.56	2.33	1.96
Kedah	2.61	2.37	2.03
Terengganu	3.46	2.80	2.86
Kelantan	3.77	3.07	2.66

Averagelife expectancy at age 0 of the total population.^[35]

Malaysia's population comprises many ethnic groups. People ofAustronesian origin make up the majority of the population, and are known as theBumiputras. Large Chinese and Indian minorities also exist. Malays, as Bumiputra, see Malaysia as their land, and since race riots in 1969, Bumiputra have been especially privileged in Malaysia – top government positions are reserved for Malays, and the Malays received cheaper housing, priority in government jobs as well as business licenses. However, since the riot, racial stability has prevailed, if not full harmony, and mixed marriages are on the rise.^[36] In the 2010 census, 68.8 per cent of the population were consideredbumiputera, 23.2 per centMalaysian Chinese, and 7 per centMalaysian Indian.^[37] In 2021 these figures were 69.7 per cent bumiputera, 22.5 per cent Chinese, and 6.8 per cent Indian.^[38]

Bumiputras totaling 69.7% of Malaysia's population as of 2021 are divided intoMuslimMalays proper, who make up the majority of the Malaysian population at 57.9%; and otherbumiputra, who make up 13.2% of the Malaysian population, and most of whom belong to variousAustronesian ethnic groups related to the Muslim Malays.^[11] Bumiputra status is also accorded to certain non-Malayindigenous peoples, includingOrang Asli and the natives ofSabah andSarawak. Laws over who gets Bumiputra status vary between states.^[39] Some Eurasians can obtain bumiputra privileges, providing they can prove they are of Portuguese (Kristang) descent.^[40]

The Malays are an ethnic group predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and parts ofSumatra andBorneo. They form the largest community in Malaysia and play a dominant role politically. They make up about half of the total population. Byconstitutional definition, Malays are Muslims who practice Malay customs (adat) and culture.

Their language,Malay (Bahasa Melayu), is the national language of the country.^[41] Citizens of Minangkabau, Bugis or Javanese origins, who can be classified "Malay" under constitutional definitions may also speak their respective ancestral tongues. However, English is also widely spoken in major towns and cities across the country. Malays from different states in Malaysia carry distinct dialects that can sometimes be unintelligible to most of their fellow countrymen. By definition of theMalaysian constitution, all Malays are Muslims.

In the past, Malays wrote inPallava or using theSanskrit-based alphabet ofKawi. Arabic traders later introducedJawi, an Arabic-based script, which became popular after the 15th century. Until then reading and writing were mostly the preserve of scholars and nobility, while most Malay commoners were illiterate. Jawi was taught along with Islam, allowing the script to spread through all social classes. Nevertheless,Kawi remained in use by the upper-class well into the 15th century. TheRomanised script was introduced during the colonial period and, over time, it came to replace both Sanskrit and Jawi. This was largely due to the influence of the European education system, wherein children were taught the Latin alphabet.

Malay culture shows strong influences fromBuddhism,Hinduism and animism. However, since theIslamisation movement of the 1980s and 90s, these aspects are often neglected or banned altogether. Because any Malay-speaking Muslim is entitled to Bumiputra privileges, many non-Malay Muslims have adopted the Malay language, customs and attire in the last few decades. This is particularly the case with Indian Muslims from the peninsula and theKedayan of Borneo. The Malay ethnic group is distinct from the concept of aMalay race, which encompasses a wider group of people, including most of Indonesia and the Philippines.

Malaysia has many other non-Malay indigenous people, who are given Bumiputra status. The indigenous tribes are the oldest inhabitants ofMalaysia, and the indigenous groups of Peninsular Malaysia are known collectively asOrang Asli and in East Malaysia as "Orang Asal". They account for about 11 percent of the nation's population, and represent a majority in East Malaysia ofSabah andSarawak. In Sarawak, the dominant tribal group are theDayak people, who are either Iban (also known as Sea Dayak) or Bidayuh (also known as Land Dayak) of which are mainly Christians. TheIban form the largest of all indigenous groups, numbering over 600,000 (35% of Sarawak's population), who mostly still live in traditionallonghouses which can hold up to 200 people.^[42] Longhouses are mostly places along the Rajang and Lupar rivers and their tributaries, although many Iban have moved to the cities. TheBidayuhs, numbering around 170,000, are concentrated in the southwestern part of Sarawak. They, together with other indigenous groups in Sarawak make up over half of the states population.^[11]

The largest indigenous tribe in Sabah is theKadazan, most of whom are Christians^[43] and rice farmers.^[44] They live as subsistence farmers. Sabah has a large number of indigenous people, 19.3% of the population areKadazan-Dusuns, and 16.5% areBajaus.^[45]

There also existaboriginal groups in much smaller numbers on the peninsula, where they are collectively known asOrang Asli (literally meaning "original person").^[46] The 140,000Orang Asli comprise a number of different ethnic communities. Many tribes, both on the peninsula and in Borneo, were traditionally nomadic or semi-nomadic hunter—gatherers who practice animism, including thePunan,Penan andSenoi. However, their ancestral land and hunting grounds are commonly reclaimed by the state, shifting them to inferior land and sometimes pushing them out of their traditional way of life.^[47] One group of Orang Asli are called 'Negritos' and are deeply related to the ancestors of other modernEast Asian people.^[48] They consist one of the earliest layers of population. Some Negrito sub-groups are now extinct, such as the Semang Bakau ofPenang.^[49] Other bumiputera minorities to a lesser degree include theMalaysian Siamese, Khmers, Chams, Burmese and the Indian Muslims commonly known as Mamaks.^{[attribution needed]}

Minorities who lack Bumiputra status have established themselves in Malaysia. Those who are not considered to be Bumiputras make up a considerable portion of the Malaysian population – non-Malays once constituted around 50% of the population of peninsula Malaya (1947–1957), but have since declined in percentage term due to a higher birthrate of Malays owing to favorable policies by the government as well as some degree of out-migration by the Chinese.^[6] A large number of the non-Bumiputra arrived during the colonial period, but most of the non-Bumiputras were native-born by 1947 as large-scale immigration had effectively ceased by the late 1940s.^[6] Some Chinese families, known asPeranakan ("straits-born"), have resided in Malaysia since as far back as 15th century Malacca.

The second largest ethnic group at 6.69 million are the Chinese who make up 22.8% of the population excluding non-citizens as of 2022. They have been dominant in trade and business since the early 20th century. Malaysian Chinese businesses developed as part of the largerbamboo network, a network ofoverseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties.^[50]George Town,Ipoh andIskandar Puteri are Chinese-majority cities,^[51] whilePenang was the only state in Malaysia with a non-Bumiputera majority population. As of 2020^[update], the Chinese comprised over 41% of Penang's population, making it the only state with a Chinese plurality.^[52] The Chinese have been settling in Malaysia for many centuries, as seen in the emergence of thePeranakan culture, but the exodus peaked during the nineteenth century through trading andtin-mining. When they first arrived, the Chinese often worked the most grueling jobs liketin mining and railway construction. Later on, some of them owned businesses that became large conglomerates in today's Malaysia. Most Chinese areTaoBuddhist and retain strong cultural ties to their ancestral homeland.

The first Chinese people to settle in theStraits Settlements, primarily in and aroundMalacca, gradually adopted elements of Malayan culture, and some intermarried with the Malayan community. A distinct sub-ethnic group calledbabas (male) andnyonyas (female) emerged.Babas andnyonyas as a group are known asPeranakan. They produced a syncretic set of practices, beliefs, and arts, combining Malay and Chinese traditions in such a way as to create a new culture. ThePeranakan culture is still visible to this day in the formerStraits Settlements ofSingapore,Malacca andPenang.

The Chinese community in Malaysia, depending on the predominant dialect in a particular region, speaks a variety of Chinese dialects includingMandarin,Hokkien,Cantonese,Hakka andTeochew. In certain regions in Malaysia, some dialects are more widely used;Hokkien predominates inPenang andKedah, while most Chinese in the former centres oftin mining, such asIpoh andKuala Lumpur, speakCantonese. More recently, however, with the standardised, compulsory use ofMandarin in Chinese schools, a huge majority ofMalaysian Chinese now speakMandarin, a non-native language that originated from northern China.

On the other hand, it was reported that up to 10% ofMalaysian Chinese are primarily English-speaking.^[53] The English-speaking Chinese minority is typically concentrated in cities such asKuala Lumpur,Petaling Jaya,Puchong,Subang Jaya,George Town,Ipoh andMalacca. The English speakers form a distinct subset within the larger Chinese community, as they are known to have a less Sinocentric mindset, and are rather Westernized in thinking and attitudes.

The 2.02 million Indian community in Malaysia is the smallest of the three main ethnic groups, comprising only 6.6% of the total population excluding non-citizens as of 2021. Indians were brought in to Malaysia during the British colonial period in late 18th century and early 19th centuries. There is another historical evidence that confirms Indian civilisation started in Malaysia thousands of years ago by Rajendra Cholan. The proof still exist in Lembah Bujang, Kedah. This is an historical evidence that still about Malaysia and Indians.^[54] They first came to Malaya for barter trade, especially in the former Straits Settlements of Singapore, Malacca and Penang. During the British colonial rule, Indian labourers, who were mostly south Indian Tamils from Tamil Nadu and some Telugus and Malayalis from other parts of South India, were brought to Malaya to work on sugarcane and coffee plantations, rubber and oil palm estates, construction of buildings, railways, roads and bridges.^[55] English-educatedCeylon Tamils from Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and someMalaysian Telugus andMalayalees (from Kerala) were brought in to handle white-collar jobs. Kerala had the first mission schools in India and as such produced English educated administrators. Both ethnicities worked mainly as clerks, public servants, teachers, hospital assistants, doctors and in other skilled professions.^[56][57][58] As for thePunjabis fromPunjab, most of them where enlisted in the army in Malaya while some handled the bullock-cart services in the country.^[59][60]

The Indians who came to Malaysia brought with them theHindu religion, its unique temples calledKovils and the Sikhs with theirGurdwaras.Tamil cuisine is hugely popular. More than 86% of Malaysian Indians adhere to Hinduism. The Chitty community in Malacca are descendants of much earlier Indian immigrants who adopted local culture. Though they remain Hindu, the Chitties speak Bahasa Malaysia and women dress in sarong kebayas. The Hindu community celebrates two main festivals —Deepavali andThaipusam — and many other smaller religious events each year. Both ethnicTelugu people andMalayalees fromAndhra Pradesh andKerala celebrate theUgadi festival (new year) andOnam. The ethnic Punjabis celebrateVasakhi,Lodi and Gurpurab. Majority of the Indians in Malaysia speakTamil (also lingua franca among all Indians) whileTelugu,Malayalam andPunjabi are also spoken by minorities.

A small minority of Malaysians do not fit into the broader ethnic groups. A small population exists of people of European and Middle Eastern descent. Europeans and Middle Easterners, who first arrived during the colonial period, assimilated through intermarriage into the Christian and Muslim communities. Most Eurasian Malaysians trace their ancestry to British, Dutch and/or Portuguese colonists, and there is a strongKristang community in Malacca.

TheNepalese are mostly migrant workers fromNepal totalling 356,199^[61][62][63] of which Malaysian Citizens are as little over 600 and lives inRawang, Selangor. Originally brought by the British as bodyguards and security personnel,Nepali population consist of Rana, Chettri, Rai and Gurung clans. Other minorities includeFilipinos andBurmese. A small number of ethnicVietnamese fromCambodia andVietnam settled in Malaysia asVietnam War refugees.

There is no general consensus on the ethnic profiling of children of mixed parentage. Some choose to be identified according to paternal ethnicity while others simply think that they fall in the "Others" category. The majority choose to identify themselves as Malay as long as either parent is Malay, mainly due to the legal definition of Bumiputra and the privileges that comes along with it. Children of Chinese–Indian parentage are known asChindians. Though this is not an official category in national census data, it is an increasing number especially in urban areas due to the increasing ethnic Chinese-Indian relationships.

Many other people from around the world have moved to Malaysia. There are over 70,000 Africans who have emigrated to Malaysia.^[64]

Malaysia contains speakers of 137 living languages,^[65] 41 of which are found in Peninsula Malaysia.^[66] The official language of Malaysia is known asBahasa Malaysia, a standardised form of theMalay language.^[41] English was, for a protracted period, the de facto, administrative language of Malaysia, though its status was later rescinded. Despite that, English remains an activesecond language in many areas of Malaysian society and is taught as a compulsory subject in all public schools.^[67][68] Many businesses in Malaysia conduct their transactions in English, and it is sometimes used in official correspondence. Examinations are based onBritish English, although there has been much American influence through television.

Malaysian English, also known as Malaysian Standard English (MySE), is a form of English derived fromBritish English, although there is little official use of the term, except with relation to education. Malaysian English also sees wide use in business, along withManglish, which is a colloquial form of English with heavyMalay, Chinese languages andTamil influences. Most Malaysians are conversant in English, although some are only fluent in the Manglish form. The Malaysian government officially discourages the use of Manglish.^[69]

Malaysian Chinese mostly speak Chinese languages from the southern provinces of China. The more common languages in Peninsular Malaysia areHokkien,Cantonese,Hakka,Teochew,Hainanese, andHokchiu.^[70] InSarawak, most ethnic Chinese speak eitherFuzhounese orHakka while Hakka predominates inSabah except in the city ofSandakan whereCantonese is more often spoken despite theHakka-origins of the Chinese residing there. Hokkien is mostly spoken inPenang,Kedah andPerlis, whereas Cantonese is mostly spoken inIpoh andKuala Lumpur. However, in Malaysia as a whole, the majority of ethnic Chinese now speakMandarin, a non-native language from northern China (originally spoken by the Beijing elite and chosen as the official language of China), as their first language, while English is the first language for the rest. Some of the less-spoken languages such asHainanese are facing extinction. As with Malaysian youths of other races, most Chinese youth are multilingual and can speak up to four languages with at least moderate fluency – their native Chinese language, Mandarin, English and Malay.

Tamil is the most common language spoken amongIndians in Malaysia,^[71] especially inPeninsular Malaysia where they still maintain close cultural ties with their homelandTamil Nadu &Ceylon. This is because there are far fewer Indians in East Malaysia than in the Peninsula. Tamil community from Ceylon have their own Tamil dialect known as Sri Lankan Tamil. Besides Tamil, theMalayalam Language is spoken by over 200,000Malayalees in Malaysia, predominantly inPerak,Selangor,Negeri Sembilan andJohore.^[72]Telugu is also spoken by the Telugu community.Punjabi language is commonly spoken by the Punjabi community. Besides that,Sinhala is used by a small number of Sinhalese community fromSri Lanka.

Citizens ofMinangkabau,Bugis orJavanese origins, who can be classified "Malay" under constitutional definitions may also speak their respective ancestral tongues. The native tribes of East Malaysia have their own languages which are related to, but easily distinguishable from, Malay. TheIban is the main tribal language inSarawak whileDusunic languages are spoken by the natives inSabah.^[73] A variant of theMalay language that is spoken inBrunei is also commonly spoken in both states.

Some Malaysians haveCaucasian ancestry and speakcreole languages, such as thePortuguese-based Malaccan Creoles,^[74] and the Spanish-basedZamboangueño Chavacano.^[75] Thai is also spoken in some areas.^[11]

Citizenship is usually granted bylex soli.^[76] Citizenship in the states ofSabah andSarawak inMalaysian Borneo are distinct from citizenship inPeninsular Malaysia for immigration purposes. Every citizen is issued a biometric smart chipidentity card, known asMyKad, at the age of 12, and must carry the card at all times.^[77]

Islam is the largest and state religion of Malaysia, although Malaysia is a multi-religious society and the Malaysian constitution guaranteesreligious freedom. Despite the recognition of Islam as the state religion, the first 4 prime ministers have stressed that Malaysia could function as a secular state. According to the Population and Housing Census 2020 figures, approximately 63.5 percent of the population practised Islam; 18.7 percentBuddhism; 9.1 percent Christianity; 6.1 percentHinduism; and 2.7 percent practise other religions or reported having no religion or did not provide any information.^[79] The percentage population of Muslims has been steadily increasing – from 58.6% in 1991, 60.4% in 2000, 61.5% in 2010, to 63.5% of the 2020 census.^[80][81]

The majority ofMalaysian Indians follow Hinduism (84.5%), with a significant minority identifying as Christians (7.7%), Sikhs (3.9%), Muslims (3.8%), and 1,000Jains. MostMalaysian Chinese follow a combination ofBuddhism,Taoism,Confucianism andancestor-worship but, when pressed to specify their religion, will identify themselves as Buddhists. Statistics from the 2000 Census indicate that 75.9% of Malaysia's ethnic Chinese identify as Buddhist, with significant numbers of adherents following Taoism (10.6%) andChristianity (9.6%), along with smallHui-Muslim populations in areas likePenang.^[81] Christianity constitutes a slim majority of the non-MalayBumiputra community (50.1%) with an additional 36.3% identifying as Muslims while 7.3% followfolk religion.^[81]

Islam is thought to have been brought to Malaysia around the 12th century byArab traders.^[82] Since then the religion has become the predominant religion of the country and is recognised as the state's official religion. All ethnicMalays are considered Muslim byArticle 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia.^[83]

Muslims are obliged to follow the decisions ofSyariah courts in matters concerning their religion. The Islamic judges are expected to follow theShafi`i legal school of Islam, which is the mainmadh'hab of Malaysia.^[84] The jurisdiction ofShariah courts is limited only to Muslims in matters such as marriage,inheritance, divorce,apostasy,religious conversion, and custody among others. No other criminal or civil offences are under the jurisdiction of the Shariah courts, which have a similar hierarchy to theCivil Courts. Despite being the supreme courts of the land, the Civil Courts (including the Federal Court) do not hear matters related to Islamic practices,^[85] as ratified byMahathir Mohamad in the late 1980s. Regulation of sexual activities among the Muslim population is strict; with laws prohibiting unmarried couples from occupying a secluded area or a confined space to prevent suspicion of acts forbidden inIslam.^[86]

Literacy rates (percentage of people over 15 who can read and write) are high in Malaysia, with an overall literacy rate of 88.7%.^[87] Literacy rates are higher among males (92%) than females (85.4%)

Education in Malaysia is monitored by the federal governmentMinistry of Education.^[88] The education system features a non-compulsory kindergarten education followed by six years of compulsory primary education,^[89] and five years of optional secondary education.^[90] Most Malaysian children start schooling between the ages of three and six, inkindergarten.

Children begin primary schooling at the age of seven for a period of six years. Primary schools are divided into two categories, national primary schools and vernacular school.^[91] Vernacular schools (Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan) use either Chinese or Tamil as the medium of instruction, whereas national primary schools (Sekolah Kebangsaan) uses Bahasa Malaysia as the medium of instruction for subjects except English, Science and Mathematics.

Before progressing to the secondary level of education, pupils in Year 6 are required to sit the Primary School Achievement Test (Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah, UPSR).^[92] A programme called First Level Assessment (Penilaian Tahap Satu, PTS) taken during Primary Year 3 was abolished in 2001.

Secondary education in Malaysia is conducted in secondary schools (Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan) for five years. National secondary schools use Malay as the main language of instruction. The only exceptions are Mathematics and Science and languages other than Malay, however this was only implemented in 2003, prior to which all non-language subjects were taught in Malay. At the end of Form Three, which is the third year, students are evaluated in the Form Three Assessment ("Pentaksiran Tingkatan Tiga", PT3)（ now abolished ）. Secondary students no longer sit for PMR in Form Three that has been abolished in 2014. In the final year of secondary education (Form Five), students sit the Malaysian Certificate of Education (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia, SPM) examination, which is equivalent to the former British Ordinary or 'O' Levels. The government has decided to abandon the use of English in teaching maths and science and revert toBahasa Malaysia, starting in 2012.^[93]

Malaysian national secondary schools are sub-divided into several types: National Secondary School (Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan), Religious Secondary School (Sekolah Menengah Agama), National-Type Secondary School (Sekolah Menengah Jenis Kebangsaan) (also referred to as Mission Schools), Technical Schools (Sekolah Menengah Teknik),Residential Schools andMARA Junior Science College (Maktab Rendah Sains MARA).

There are also 60Chinese Independent High Schools in Malaysia, where most subjects are taught in Chinese. Chinese Independent High Schools are monitored and standardised by the United Chinese School Committees' Association of Malaysia (UCSCAM). However, unlike government schools, independent schools are autonomous. It takes six years to complete secondary education in Chinese independent schools. Students will sit a standardised test conducted by UCSCAM, which is known as the Unified Examination Certificate (UEC) in Junior Middle 3 (equivalent to PMR) and Senior Middle 3 (equivalent toA level). A number of independent schools conduct classes in Malay and English in addition to Chinese, enabling the students to sit the PMR and SPM additionally.

Before the introduction of thematriculation system, students aiming to enter public universities had to complete an additional 18 months of secondary schooling in Form Six and sit the Malaysian Higher School Certificate (Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia, STPM); equivalent to the British Advanced or'A' levels.^[94] Since the introduction of the matriculation programme as an alternative to STPM in 1999, students who completed the 12-month programme in matriculation colleges (kolej matrikulasi in Malay) can enrol in local universities. However, in the matriculation system, only 10 per cent of the places are open to non-Bumiputra students.^[95]

There are a number of government-funded public universities in Malaysia, the most prominent of them beingUniversity of Malaya. Although the ethnic quota system favouring Bumiputras at such universities was abolished in 2002, disparity of student intake still exists in these universities with underrepresentation of non-Bumiputras.^[96] Instead, private universities have sprung up to cater to the local population. These private universities are also gaining a reputation for international quality education and students from all over the world attend these universities. In addition, four reputable international universities have set up their branch campuses in Malaysia since 1998. A branch campus can be seen as an 'offshore campus' of the foreign university, which offers the same courses and awards as the main campus. Both local and international students can acquire these identical foreign qualifications in Malaysia at a lower fee. The foreign university branch campuses in Malaysia are:Monash University Malaysia Campus,Curtin University, Malaysia,Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus andUniversity of Nottingham Malaysia Campus.

Students also have the option of enrolling in private tertiary institutions after secondary studies. Most institutions have educational links with overseas universities especially in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia, allowing students to spend a portion of their course duration abroad as well as getting overseas qualifications. One such example isTunku Abdul Rahman University College which partnered withSheffield Hallam University andCoventry University.^[97]

In addition to the Malaysian National Curriculum, Malaysia has many international schools such as The International School Kuala Lumpur, Alice Smith School, Gardens International School, Cempaka Schools Malaysia, Kolej Tuanku Ja'afar...etc. These schools cater to the growing expatriate population in the country and the Malaysians who want a foreign curriculum, UK based curriculum, English education or Australian curriculum as well.

The Malaysian government places importance on the expansion and development of health care, putting 5% of the government social sector development budget into public health care^[98]—an increase of more than 47% over the previous figure. This has meant an overall increase of more than RM 2 billion. With a rising and ageing population, the Government wishes to improve in many areas including the refurbishment of existing hospitals, building and equipping new hospitals, expansion of the number of polyclinics, and improvements in training and expansion oftelehealth. A major problem with the health care sector is the lack of medical centres for rural areas, which the government is trying to counter through the development of and expansion of a system called "tele-primary care".^[99] Another issue is the overprescription of drugs, though this has decreased in recent years.^[100] Since 2009 the Malaysian Health Ministry has increased its efforts to overhaul the system and attract more foreign investment.^[98]

The country generally has an efficient and widespread system of health care. It implements auniversal healthcare system, which co-exists with the private healthcare system.^[99]Infant mortality rate in 2009 was 6 deaths per 1000 births, and life expectancy at birth in 2009 was 75 years.^[101] Malaysia has the highest levels ofobesity among Malay population inASEAN countries.^[102][103]

The Malaysian health care system requires doctors to perform a compulsory three years service with public hospitals to ensure that the manpower in these hospitals is maintained.^[99] Recently foreign doctors have also been encouraged to take up employment in Malaysia. There is still, however, a significant shortage in the medical workforce, especially of highly trained specialists; thus, certain medical care and treatment are available only in large cities. Recent efforts to bring many facilities to other towns have been hampered by lack of expertise to run the available equipment.

The majority of private hospitals are in urban areas and, unlike many of the public hospitals, are equipped with the latest diagnostic and imaging facilities. Private hospitals have not generally been seen as an ideal investment—it has often taken up to ten years before companies have seen any profits. However, the situation has now changed and companies are now exploring this area again, corresponding with the increased number of foreigners entering Malaysia for medical care and the recent government focus on developing thehealth tourism industry.^[104] The Government has also been trying to promote Malaysia as a health care destination, regionally and internationally.^[98]

• Immigration to Malaysia
• Project IC, corruption & electoral demographics

• Department of Statistics, MalaysiaArchived 20 December 2006 at theWayback Machine

• Demographics of Malaysia

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