The Democratic Republic of the Congo is named after theCongo River, which flows through the country. The Congo River is the world's deepest river and the world's third-largest riverby discharge. TheComité d'études du haut Congo ("Committee for the Study of the Upper Congo"), established by KingLeopold II of Belgium in 1876, and theInternational Association of the Congo, established by him in 1879, were also named after the river.[30]
The Congo River was named by early European sailors after theKingdom of Kongo and itsBantu inhabitants, theKongo people, when they encountered them in the 16th century.[31][32] The wordKongo comes from theKongo language (also calledKikongo). According to American writer Samuel Henry Nelson: "It is probable that the word 'Kongo' itself implies a public gathering and that it is based on the rootkonga, 'to gather' (trans[itive])."[33] The modern name of the Kongo people,Bakongo, was introduced in the early 20th century.[citation needed]
At the time of independence, the country was named the Republic of the Congo-Léopoldville to distinguish it from its neighbourCongo, officially theRepublic of the Congo. With the promulgation of theLuluabourg Constitution on 1 August 1964, the country became the DRC but was renamedZaire (a past name for the Congo River) on 27 October 1971 by PresidentMobutu Sese Seko as part of hisAuthenticité initiative.[34]
The wordZaire is from aPortuguese adaptation of a Kikongo wordnzadi ("river"), a truncation ofnzadi o nzere ("river swallowing rivers").[35][36][37] The river was known asZaire during the 16th and 17th centuries.Congo seems to have replacedZaire gradually in English usage during the 18th century, andCongo is the preferred English name in 19th-century literature, although references toZaire as the name used by the natives (i.e., derived from Portuguese usage) remained common.[38]
In 1992, the Sovereign National Conference voted to change the name of the country to the "Democratic Republic of the Congo", but the change was not made.[39] The country's name was later restored by PresidentLaurent-Désiré Kabila when he overthrew Mobutu in 1997.[40] To distinguish it from the neighboring Republic of the Congo, it is sometimes referred to asCongo (Kinshasa),Congo-Kinshasa, orBig Congo.[41] Its name is sometimes also abbreviated asCongo DR,DR Congo,[42]DRC,[43]the DROC,[44] andRDC (in French).[43]
The geographical area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo was populated as early as 90,000 years ago, as shown by the 1988 discovery of theSemliki harpoon atKatanda, one of the oldest barbed harpoons ever found, believed to have been used to catchgiant river catfish.[45][46]
Bantu peoples reachedCentral Africa at some point during the first millennium BC, then gradually started to expand southward. Their propagation was accelerated by the adoption ofpastoralism and ofIron Age techniques. The people living in the south and southwest were foraging groups, whose technology involved only minimal use of metal technologies. The development of metal tools during this time period revolutionized agriculture. This led to the displacement of theAfrican pygmies. Following the Bantu migrations, a period of state and class formation began circa 700 with three centres in the modern-day territory; one to the west aroundPool Malebo, one east aroundLake Mai-Ndombe, and a third even further east and south around theUpemba Depression.[47]: 17–18
By the 13th century, there were three main confederations of states in the western Congo Basin around Pool Malebo. In the east were theSeven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza, considered to be the oldest and most powerful, which likely includedNsundi,Mbata,Mpangu, and possiblyKundi andOkanga. South of these wasMpemba which stretched from modern-dayAngola to theCongo River. It included various kingdoms such asMpemba Kasi andVunda. To its west across the Congo River was a confederation of three small states;Vungu (its leader),Kakongo, andNgoyo.[47]: 24–25
TheKingdom of Kongo was founded in the 14th century and dominated the western region. The empire ofMwene Muji was founded around Lake Mai-Ndombe.[48] From the Upemba Depression theLuba Empire andLunda Empire emerged in the 15th and 17th centuries respectively dominated the eastern region.
Belgian exploration and administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s. It was first led byHenry Morton Stanley, who undertook his explorations under the sponsorship of KingLeopold II of Belgium. The eastern regions of the precolonial Congo were heavily disrupted by constantslave raiding, mainly from Arab–Swahilislave traders such as the infamousTippu Tip, who was well known to Stanley.[49] Leopold had designs on what was to become the Congo as a colony.[50] In a succession of negotiations, Leopold, professing humanitarian objectives in his capacity as chairman of thefront organizationAssociation Internationale Africaine, actually played one European rival against another.[citation needed] King Leopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at theConference of Berlin in 1885 and made the land his private property. He named it theCongo Free State.[50] Leopold's regime began various infrastructure projects, such as the construction of therailway that ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville (now Kinshasa), which took eight years to complete.
In the Congo Free State, colonists coerced the local population into producing rubber to meet the growing international demand driven by the spread of automobiles and the development of rubber tires. Rubber sales made a fortune for Leopold, who built several buildings inBrussels andOstend to honor himself and his country. To enforce the rubber quotas, theForce Publique was called in and made the practice of cutting off the limbs of the natives a matter of policy.[51] Under the Congo Free State, concessions were granted to private industries, giving them monopolies over violence and resource extraction. The most brutal of these concession zones surrounded rubber plantations. Concession regions were aligned with villages, where local chiefs were employed to help enforce strict quotas. Failure to comply or meet these quotas often resulted in the kidnapping of family members, who were held for ransom until quotas were met or subjected to physical violence. Violence was carried out by "village sentries"—militias led by European officers and composed of African soldiers—tasked with ensuring rubber collection. These sentries operated with full impunity, lacked proper oversight, and were reportedly known to kill and eat underperforming workers[52]
During 1885–1908, between 1.2 and 13 million Congolese died as a consequence of exploitation and disease.[53][54][55][56] In some areas the population declined dramatically – it has been estimated thatsleeping sickness andsmallpox killed nearly half the population in the areas surrounding the lower Congo River.[51] News of the abuses began to circulate. In 1904, theBritish consul atBoma in the Congo,Roger Casement, was instructed by the British government to investigate. His report, called theCasement Report, confirmed the accusations of humanitarian abuses. The Belgian Parliament forced Leopold II to set up an independent commission of inquiry. Its findings confirmed Casement's report of abuses, concluding that the population of the Congo had been "reduced by half" during this period.[57] Determining precisely how many people died is impossible, as no accurate records exist.
In 1908, the Belgian parliament, in spite of initial reluctance, bowed to international pressure (especially from theUnited Kingdom) and took over the Free State from King Leopold II.[58] On 18 October 1908, the Belgian parliament voted in favour of annexing the Congo as a Belgian colony. Executive power went to theBelgian minister of colonial affairs, assisted by a Colonial Council (Conseil Colonial) (both located in Brussels). The Belgian parliament exercised legislative authority over the Belgian Congo. In 1923 the colonial capital moved fromBoma to Léopoldville, some 300 kilometres (190 mi) further upstream into the interior.[59]
Force Publique soldiers in the Belgian Congo in 1918. At its peak, the Force Publique had around 19,000 Congolese soldiers, led by 420 Belgian officers.
The transition from the Congo Free State to the Belgian Congo was a break, but it also featured a large degree of continuity. The last governor-general of the Congo Free State, BaronThéophile Wahis, remained in office in the Belgian Congo and the majority of Leopold II's administration with him.[60] Opening up the Congo and its natural and mineral riches to the Belgian economy remained the main motive for colonial expansion – however, other priorities, such as healthcare and basic education, slowly gained in importance.
Colonial administrators ruled the territory and a dual legal system existed (a system of European courts and another one of indigenous courts,tribunaux indigènes). Indigenous courts had only limited powers and remained under the firm control of the colonial administration. The Belgian authorities permitted no political activity in the Congo whatsoever,[61] and theForce Publique put down any attempts at rebellion.
The Belgian Congo was directly involved in the two world wars. DuringWorld War I (1914–1918), an initial stand-off between theForce Publique and the German colonial army inGerman East Africa turned into open warfare with a joint Anglo-Belgian-Portuguese invasion of German colonial territory in 1916 and 1917 during theEast African campaign. TheForce Publique gained a notable victory when it marched intoTabora in September 1916 under the command of GeneralCharles Tombeur after heavy fighting.
After 1918, Belgium was rewarded for the participation of theForce Publique in the East African campaign with aLeague of Nations mandate over the previously German colony ofRuanda-Urundi. DuringWorld War II, the Belgian Congo provided a crucial source of income for theBelgian government in exile in London, and theForce Publique again participated inAllied campaigns in Africa. Belgian Congolese forces under the command of Belgian officers notably fought against the Italian colonial army in Ethiopia inAsosa, Bortaï[62] andSaïo under Major-GeneralAuguste-Eduard Gilliaert.[63]
The Belgian Congo achieved independence on 30 June 1960 under the name "République du Congo" ("Republic of Congo" or "Republic of the Congo" in English). Shortly after, on 15 August 1960, the neighboring French colony ofMiddle Congo also gained independence and adopted the same name, 'Republic of Congo.' To avoid confusion between the two, the former Belgian Congo became known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo), while the former French colony retained the name 'Republic of the Congo' (Congo).
Shortly after independence theForce Publique mutinied, and on 11 July theprovince of Katanga (led byMoïse Tshombe) andSouth Kasaiengaged in secessionist struggles against the new leadership.[65][66] Most of the 100,000Europeans who had remained behind after independence fled the country.[67] After the United Nations rejected Lumumba's call for help to put down the secessionist movements, Lumumba asked for assistance from the Soviet Union, who accepted and sent military supplies and advisers. On 23 August, the Congolese armed forcesinvaded South Kasai. Lumumba was dismissed from office on 5 September 1960 by Kasa-Vubu who publicly blamed him for massacres by the armed forces in South Kasai and for involving Soviets in the country.[68] On 7 September, Lumumba made a speech to the Congolese House of Representatives, arguing his dismissal was illegal under the nation's laws. Congolese law gave parliament, not the president, the authority to dismiss a government minister. The House and Senate both rejected the dismissal of Lumumba, but the removal proceeded unconstitutionally.[69]
On 14 September, ColonelJoseph Mobutu, with the backing of the US and Belgium, removed Lumumba from office. On 17 January 1961, Lumumba was handed over to Katangan authorities and executed by Belgian-led Katangan troops.[70] A 2001 investigation by Belgium's Parliament found Belgium "morally responsible" for the murder of Lumumba, and the country has since officially apologised for its role in his death.[71]
Meanwhile, in the east of the country, Soviet and Cuban-backed rebels called theSimbas rose up, taking a significant amount of territory and proclaiming a communist "People's Republic of the Congo" in Stanleyville. The Simbas were pushed out of Stanleyville in November 1964 duringOperation Dragon Rouge, a military operation conducted by Belgian and American forces to rescue hundreds of hostages. Congolese government forces fully defeated the Simba rebels by November 1965.[72]
Lumumba had previously appointed Mobutu chief of staff of the new Congo army,Armée Nationale Congolaise.[73] Taking advantage of the leadership crisis between Kasavubu and Tshombe, Mobutu garnered enough support within the army to launch a coup. Aconstitutional referendum the year beforeMobutu's coup of 1965 resulted in the country's official name being changed to the "Democratic Republic of the Congo".[2] In 1971 Mobutu changed the name again, this time to "Republic of Zaire".[74][34]
Mobutu had the staunch support of the United States because of hisopposition to communism; the U.S. believed that his administration would serve as an effective counter to communist movements in Africa.[75] Asingle-party system was established, and Mobutu declared himselfhead of state. He periodically held elections in which he was the only candidate. Although relative peace and stability were achieved, Mobutu's government was guilty of severehuman rights violations,political repression, acult of personality andcorruption.
By late 1967, Mobutu had successfully neutralized his political opponents and rivals, either through co-opting them into his regime, arresting them, or rendering them otherwise politically impotent.[76] Throughout the late 1960s, Mobutu continued to shuffle his governments and cycle officials in and out of the office to maintain control. Joseph Kasa-Vubu's death in April 1969 ensured that no person with First Republic credentials could challenge his rule.[77] By the early 1970s, Mobutu was attempting to assert Zaire as a leading African nation. He traveled frequently across the continent while the government became more vocal about African issues, particularly those relating to the southern region. Zaire established semi-clientelist relationships with several smaller African states, especially Burundi, Chad, and Togo.[78]
Corruption became so common the term "le mal Zairois" or "Zairian sickness",[79] meaning gross corruption, theft and mismanagement, was coined, reportedly by Mobutu.[80] International aid, most often in the form of loans, enriched Mobutu while he allowed national infrastructure such as roads to deteriorate to as little as one-quarter of what had existed in 1960. Zaire became akleptocracy as Mobutu and his associates embezzled government funds.
In a campaign to identify himself with African nationalism, starting on 1 June 1966, Mobutu renamed the nation's cities: Léopoldville became Kinshasa (the country was known as Congo-Kinshasa), Stanleyville becameKisangani, Elisabethville becameLubumbashi, and Coquilhatville becameMbandaka. In 1971, Mobutu renamed the country theRepublic of Zaire,[34] its fourth name change in eleven years and its sixth overall. The Congo River was renamed the Zaire River.
During the 1970s and 1980s, Mobutu was invited to visit the United States on several occasions, meeting with U.S. PresidentsRichard Nixon,Ronald Reagan andGeorge H. W. Bush.[81] Following thedissolution of the Soviet Union U.S. relations with Mobutu cooled, as he was no longer deemed necessary as aCold War ally. Opponents within Zaire stepped up demands for reform. This atmosphere contributed to Mobutu's declaring the Third Republic in 1990, whose constitution was supposed to pave the way for democratic reform. The reforms turned out to be largely cosmetic. Mobutu continued in power until armed forces forced him to flee in 1997. "From 1990 to 1993, the United States facilitated Mobutu's attempts to hijack political change", one academic wrote, and "also assisted the rebellion of Laurent-Desire Kabila that overthrew the Mobutu regime."[82]
In September 1997, Mobutu died in exile in Morocco.[83]
By 1996, following theRwandan Civil War andgenocide and the ascension of aTutsi-led government in Rwanda, RwandanHutu militia forces (Interahamwe) fled to eastern Zaire and used refugee camps as bases for incursions against Rwanda. They allied with the Zairian Armed Forces to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire.[84]
A coalition of Rwandan and Ugandan armies invaded Zaire to overthrow the government of Mobutu, launching the First Congo War. The coalition allied with some opposition figures, led byLaurent-Désiré Kabila, becoming theAlliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo. In 1997 Mobutu fled and Kabila marched into Kinshasa, naming himself as president and reverting the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[85][86]
Kabila later requested that foreign military forces return to their own countries. Rwandan troops retreated toGoma and launched a new Tutsi-led rebel military movement called theRassemblement Congolais pour la Democratie to fight Kabila, while Uganda instigated the creation of a rebel movement called theMovement for the Liberation of the Congo, led by Congolese warlordJean-Pierre Bemba.[citation needed] The two rebel movements, along with Rwandan and Ugandan troops, started the Second Congo War by attacking the DRC army in 1998. Angolan, Zimbabwean, and Namibian militaries entered the hostilities on the side of the government.
Kabila was assassinated in 2001.[87] His sonJoseph Kabila succeeded him[88] and called for multilateral peace talks. UN peacekeepers, MONUC, now known asMONUSCO, arrived in April 2001. In 2002–03, Bemba intervened in the Central African Republic on behalf of its former president,Ange-Félix Patassé.[89] Talks led to a peace accord under which Kabila would share power with former rebels, implemented between 2002 and 2003.[14] The most widely reported estimate for the death toll during the Second Congo War is 5.4 million people, though other estimates put it at three million. It has been described as the deadliest conflict sinceWorld War II.[14][90] By June 2003 all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo. Atransitional government was set up until an election was held. A constitution was approved by voters; further, on 30 July 2006, DRC held itsfirst multi-party elections. These were the first free national elections since 1960, which many believed would mark the end to violence in the region.[91] However, an election-result dispute between Kabila and Bemba turned into a skirmish between their supporters in Kinshasa. MONUC took control of the city. The second round of the election took place in October 2006, which Kabila won, and in December 2006 he was sworn in as president.
People fleeing their villages due to fighting betweenFARDC and rebel groups,North Kivu, 2012Government troops nearGoma during theM23 rebellion in May 2013
Laurent Nkunda, a member ofRally for Congolese Democracy–Goma, defected along with troops loyal to him and formed theNational Congress for the Defence of the People (CNDP), which began an armed rebellion against the government. In March 2009, after a deal between the DRC and Rwanda, Rwandan troops entered the DRC and arrested Nkunda and were allowed to pursue FDLR militants. The CNDP signed a peace treaty with the government in which it agreed to become a political party and to have its soldiers integrated into the national army in exchange for the release of its imprisoned members.[92] In 2012Bosco Ntaganda, the leader of the CNDP, and troops loyal to him,mutinied[93] and briefly captured the provincial capital of Goma in November 2012.[94][95]
In 2015,major protests broke out across the country and protesters demanded that Kabila step down as president.[102] On 27 November 2016 Congolese foreign ministerRaymond Tshibanda told the press no elections would be held in 2016: "it has been decided that the voter registration operation will end on July 31, 2017, and that election will take place in April 2018."[103]Protests broke out in the country on 20 December when Kabila's term in office ended. Across the country, dozens of protesters were killed and hundreds were arrested.
Human Rights Watch said in 2017 that Kabila recruited former 23 March Movement fighters to put down country-wide protests over his refusal to step down from office at the end of his term. "M23 fighters patrolled the streets of Congo's main cities, firing on or arresting protesters or anyone else deemed to be a threat to the president," they said.[104] Fierce fighting has erupted in Masisi between government forces and a powerful local warlord, General Delta. The United Nations mission in the DRC is its largest and most expensive peacekeeping effort, but it shut down five UN bases near Masisi in 2017, after the U.S. led a push to cut costs.[105]
2018 election and Tshisekedi presidency (2018–present)
On 30 December 2018, ageneral election was held. The election was originally scheduled for 23 December, but was postponed after a warehouse fire destroyed several electronic voting machines, prompting concerns about potential tampering.[106] Polling eventually opened on 30 December across most of the country, though voting remained suspended in certain areas—a measure officials said was intended to protect residents from an ongoing Ebola outbreak in eastern provinces.[107]
After polls closed, the government imposed an internet blackout in some regions, announcing that service would be restored following the release of results, which had been slated for 6 January.[107]
On 10 January 2019, the electoral commission announced opposition candidateFélix Tshisekedi as the winner of the presidential vote,[108] and he was officially sworn in as president on 24 January.[109] However, there were widespread suspicions that the results were rigged and that a deal had been made between Tshisekedi and Kabila,[110] as professional election polls carried out on election day found that Martin Fayulu, the leading opposition candidate, was expected to take 47% of the vote, compared to 23% for Felix Tshisekedi and 19% for Emmanuel Shadary, Kabila's hand-picked successor.[107][111]
In August 2019, six months after the inauguration of Félix Tshisekedi, a coalition government was announced.[112] Tshisekedi succeeded in strengthening his hold on power, gaining the support of almost 400 out of 500 members of the National Assembly, the pro-Kabila speakers of both houses of parliament being forced out. In April 2021, thenew government was formed without the supporters of Kabila.[113]
The M23 Movement had aresurgence in 2022 andreceived military assistance from Rwanda, which accused the Congolese government of supporting theFDLR Hutu militia. In early 2025, the conflict escalated with the M23 capture ofGoma andBukavu, involving thousands of Rwandan troops. Peace negotiations between Rwanda and the DRC brokered by the United States took place in the spring of 2025, and culminated in the signing of a peace deal on 27 June 2025. Thepeace agreement calls for the withdrawal of Rwandan troops from eastern Congo within 90 days and the end of the DRC's support for the FDLR, along with the creation of a regional economic integration framework for the two countries.[20] Despite the treaty, theUnited Nations Humans Rights Office (UNHRO) found that hostilities in the provinces where Goma and Bukavu are located, increased during the period from January to July 2025. UNHRO found that M23, along with the occupyingRwandan Defense Force (RDF) soldiers allegedly massacred hundreds of civilians in four villages withinRutshuru, a region withinNorth Kivu province.[123] In July 2025, a Declaration of Principles was signed inDoha as a first agreement on shared objectives for a ceasefire, and to limit future violence in the conflict.[124] In October 2025, former president Joseph Kabila was sentenced to death in absentia for alleged collaboration with the rebel group M23.[125]
The DRC is located in centralsub-Saharan Africa, bordered to the northwest by theRepublic of the Congo, to the north by theCentral African Republic, to the northeast bySouth Sudan, to the east byUganda,Rwanda andBurundi, and byTanzania (across Lake Tanganyika), to the south and southeast byZambia, to the southwest byAngola, and to the west by the South Atlantic Ocean and theCabinda Province exclave of Angola. The country lies between latitudes6°N and14°S, and longitudes12°E and32°E. It straddles theEquator, with one-third to the north and two-thirds to the south. With an area of 2,345,408 square kilometres (905,567 sq mi), it is the second-largest country in Africa by area, after Algeria.
As a result of its equatorial location, the DRC experiences high precipitation and has the highest frequency of thunderstorms in the world. The annual rainfall can total upwards of 2,000 millimetres (80 in) in some places, and the area sustains theCongo rainforest, the second-largest rainforest in the world after theAmazon rainforest. This massive expanse of lush jungle covers most of the vast, low-lying centralbasin of the river, which slopes toward the Atlantic Ocean in the west. This area is surrounded byplateaus merging intosavannas in the south and southwest, by mountainous terraces in the west, and densegrasslands extending beyond the Congo River in the north. The glaciatedRwenzori Mountains are found in the extreme eastern region.
Thetropical climate produced the Congo River system which dominates the region topographically along with the rainforest it flows through. TheCongo Basin occupies nearly the entire country and an area of nearly 1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi). The river and its tributaries form the backbone of Congolese economics and transportation. Major tributaries include theKasai,Sangha,Ubangi,Ruzizi,Aruwimi, andLulonga.
Satellite image of Democratic Republic of the Congo
The Congo River has the second-largest flow and the second-largestwatershed of any river in the world (trailing theAmazon in both respects). The sources of the Congo River are in theAlbertine Rift Mountains that flank the western branch of theEast African Rift, as well asLake Tanganyika andLake Mweru. The river flows generally west from Kisangani just belowBoyoma Falls, then gradually bends southwest, passing byMbandaka, joining with the Ubangi River, and running into thePool Malebo (Stanley Pool). Kinshasa andBrazzaville are on opposite sides of the river at the Pool. Then the river narrows and falls through a number of cataracts in deep canyons, collectively known as theLivingstone Falls, and runs pastBoma into the Atlantic Ocean. The river and a 37-kilometre-wide (23 mi) strip of coastline on its north bank provide the country's only outlet to the Atlantic.
The Albertine Rift plays a key role in shaping the Congo's geography. Not only is the northeastern section of the country much more mountainous, but tectonic movement results involcanic activity, occasionally with loss of life. The geologic activity in this area also created theAfrican Great Lakes, four of which lie on the Congo's eastern frontier:Lake Albert,Lake Kivu,Lake Edward, and Lake Tanganyika.
Therift valley has exposed an enormous amount of mineral wealth throughout the south and east of the Congo, making it accessible to mining.Cobalt, copper,cadmium, industrial and gem-qualitydiamonds, gold, silver,zinc,manganese,tin,germanium,uranium,radium,bauxite, iron ore, and coal are all found in plentiful supply, especially in the Congo's southeastern Katanga region.[126] The gold production in 2015 is 37 metric tonnes.[127]
On 17 January 2002,Mount Nyiragongoerupted, with three streams of extremely fluidlava running out at 64 km/h (40 mph) and 46 m (50 yd) wide. One of the three streams flowed directly through Goma, killing 45 people and leaving 120,000 homeless. Over 400,000 people were evacuated from the city during the eruption. The lava flowed into and poisoned the water ofLake Kivu killing its plants, animals and fish. Only two planes left the local airport because of the possibility of the explosion of stored petrol. The lava flowed through and past the airport, destroying a runway and trapping several parked airplanes. Six months after the event, nearbyMount Nyamuragira also erupted. The mountain subsequently erupted again in 2006, and once again in January 2010.[128]
As of 2023, the DRC is the 18th highest emitting nation ofgreenhouse gases and the highest emitter on the African continent.[129] The majority of these emissions arise fromland use change anddeforestation, as the country uses littlefossil fuels and only one-fifth of the population has access to electricity.[130][131] The DRC is one of the most vulnerable nations toclimate change and the least prepared to deal with its impacts.[132] Climate change in the DRC is predicted to cause more frequent and intense floods, droughts and exacerbated disease epidemics.[133] Sectors vulnerable to climate change include agriculture, forestry and energy.[134]
Conservationists have particularly worried aboutprimates. The Congo is inhabited by severalgreat ape species: the common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), the bonobo (Pan paniscus), theeastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei), and possibly a population of thewestern gorilla (Gorilla gorilla).[136] It is the only country in the world in which bonobos are found in the wild. Much concern has been raised about great ape extinction. Because of hunting and habitat destruction, the numbers of chimpanzee, bonobo and gorilla (each of whose populations once numbered in the millions) have now dwindled down to only about 200,000 gorillas, 100,000 chimpanzees and possibly only about 10,000 bonobos.[137][138] The gorillas, chimpanzee, bonobo, and okapi are all classified asendangered by theWorld Conservation Union.
The Democratic Republic of the Congo is, constitutionally, asemi-presidential republic[141] in which thepresident is the head of state,[142] elected byuniversal suffrage to a term of five years,[143] while theprime minister is the head of government[144] appointed by the president with the support of the majority party or coalition of parties in theparliament.[145] The prime minister and thecabinet, known as the government, are responsible to the legislature rather than to the president.[144] The parliament is abicameral legislature consisting of theSenate and theNational Assembly.[144] Deputies of the National Assembly are directly elected for a term of five years,[146] while senators are elected indirectly by provincial legislatures, also for a term of five years.[147] The president is thecommander-in-chief of the armed forces[148] and appoints government and military officials.[149] Theconstitution is the basis for an independent judiciary,[150] consisting of theConstitutional Court to evaluate the constitutionality of laws and to settle disputes regarding elections or the separation of powers;[151] theCourt of Cassation as thecourt of last resort in the civil and military judicial system;[152] and the Council of State as the highest administrative court.[153]
The DRC's political system is considered to beauthoritarian and scores low on rankings of democracy, political rights, and civil liberties. Despite the constitution providing for the separation of executive, legislative, and judicial powers, in practice the president and his associates have dominated the political system.[154]Freedom House rates the country as "not free" in 2025, citing endemic corruption, the manipulation of the political system, and human rights abuses, including by security forces.[155]The Economist Democracy Index described the DRC as an "authoritarian regime" in 2024, ranking it 156 out of the 167 countries that it evaluated.[156] The DRC was also ranked 163 out of 180 countries in theCorruption Perceptions Index for 2024.[157] Administrative institutions remain weak, especially in rural areas, undermining the ability of government to provide basic services to the population. The state has also struggled to extend its administration over the country's entire territory.[154] TheFragile States Index ranked the DRC the 5th most fragile country in the world, out of 179 countries, as of 2024.[158]
During the presidency ofJoseph Kabila from 2001 to 2019, the government was marked by corruption, a lack of transparency, and human rights violations.[154] Kabila remained in office beyond his constitutional mandate, which ended in 2016, by delaying an election.[159] After it washeld in late 2018 Kabila was succeeded byFélix Tshisekedi in the DRC's firstpeaceful transition of power since independence,[154] but the election is widely seen as having been rigged in a deal made between Kabila and Tshisekedi.[159][160] Tshisekedi wasreelected in late 2023, and after negotiations appointedJudith Suminwa as prime minister in 2024, the first woman to hold the post.[161]
The current political system is known as the Third Republic, declared byLaurent-Désiré Kabila at his presidential inauguration on 29 May 1997.[162] Apart from changing the country's name from Zaire back to the DR Congo and restoring its previous symbols, Kabila's government made few changes from the dictatorship ofMobutu Sese Seko.[163] After the Second Congo War (1998–2003), during which Laurent-Désiré Kabila was assassinated,[154] a transitional constitution was adopted on 4 April 2003[164] as part of the peace process.[154] It was replaced by the current constitution,[164] the Constitution of the Third Republic, which went into effect on 18 February 2006. The currentflag was also adopted.[165] TheTransitional Government, led by Joseph Kabila, oversaw the creation of the current system: the first cabinet took office in June 2003, the two chambers of the parliament were organized in July 2003, a constitution was adopted by areferendum in December 2005, and the country'sfirst free election in over four decades was held in July 2006.[166] Since the process of democratization began in 1990, more than 600 registered political parties emerged in the DRC, though only four of them—theUPDS,PPRD,UNC, andMLC—successfully operate across the entire country.[154]
The country is currently divided into the city-province of Kinshasa and 25 otherprovinces.[2] The provinces are subdivided into 145territories and 33cities. Before 2015, the country had 11 provinces.[167]
The global growth in demand for scarce raw materials and the industrial surges in China, India, Russia, Brazil and otherdeveloping countries require thatdeveloped countries employ new, integrated and responsive strategies for identifying and ensuring, on a continual basis, an adequate supply of strategic and critical materials required for their security needs.[168] Highlighting the DR Congo's importance to United States national security, the effort to establish an elite Congolese unit is the latest push by the U.S. to professionalize armed forces in this "strategically important" region.[169]
There are economic and strategic incentives (for external countries) to bring more "security" to the Congo, which is rich in natural resources such ascobalt, a metal used in many industrial and military applications.[168] The largest use of cobalt is insuperalloys, used to makejet engine parts for high speed war planes. Cobalt is also used inmagnetic alloys and in cutting and wear-resistant materials such as cementedcarbides. Thechemical industry consumes significant quantities of cobalt in a variety of applications includingcatalysts for petroleum and chemical processing; drying agents for paints and inks; ground coats for porcelain enamels; decolorant for ceramics and glass; and pigments for ceramics, paints, and plastics. The country possesses 80% of the world's cobalt reserves.[170]
It is thought that due to the importance of cobalt for batteries for electric vehicles and stabilization of electric grids with large proportions of intermittent renewables in the electricity mix, the DRC could become an object of increased geopolitical competition.[168]
The military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, known as theFARDC, consists of theLand Forces, theAir Force, and theNavy. There is also a separateRepublican Guard that is outside of the FARDC command structure, being directly responsible to the president.[176][177] In 2023 there were 103,000 soldiers in the Land Forces, 6,700 in the Navy, 2,550 in the Air Force, 14,000 in the central command, and 8,000 in the Republican Guard. All services together numbered 134,250 personnel, nominally making the FARDC the largest military in Central Africa.[176] However, the FARDC has been undermined by low levels of professionalism, training, morale, pay, and equipment, along with rampant corruption, and its lack of vehicles and aircraft makes it difficult to move troops across the country's large territory.[19][176][177]
The FARDC was established in 2003 after the end of the Second Congo War with the integration of many former rebel groups into its ranks,[177] and it still also works with pro-government militias.[19] Since then it has been a diverse combination of the former Zairian armed forces, rebel groups from the Congo Wars, and other militias that were integrated more recently. President Félix Tshisekedi announced the beginning of military reforms in 2022 to create a more cohesive national army.[178] This effort included replacing most of the high command with younger officers that had a record of success and providing more military spending for the years between 2022 and 2024.[176][178] Despite this, the FARDC continues to be disorganized and has systematic corruption, preventing it from fulfilling its mission to effectively defend the country's entire territory.[154]
The armed forces are organized on the basis of geographic joint commands known as defense zones, one each for the western, south-central, and eastern DRC,[179] which are further divided into military regions.[176] The Land Forces consist of brigades, and in 2011, those in Eastern Congo were reorganized into regiments. It was estimated in 2023 that in total there are nine brigades, 27 regiments, one artillery battalion, and one military police battalion.[176] Many units are reported to be at half of their official strength or less because of combat losses and desertions.[19] The FARDC has spent decades fighting against over 100 armed groups in Eastern Congo and theKasaï region, including localMai-Mai militias, the Rwandan-backed 23 March Movement (M23),Nduma Defense of Congo-Renovated (NDC-R), theAllied Democratic Forces (which has become part of theIslamic State), and theLord's Resistance Army.[180]
A relative of Mobutu explained how the government illicitly collected revenue during his rule: "Mobutu would ask one of us to go to the bank and take out a million. We'd go to an intermediary and tell him to get five million. He would go to the bank with Mobutu's authority and take out ten. Mobutu got one, and we took the other nine."[185] Mobutu institutionalized corruption to prevent political rivals from challenging his control, leading to aneconomic collapse in 1996.[186]
Mobutu allegedly amassed between US$50 million and $125 million during his rule.[187][188] He was not the first corrupt Congolese leader by any means: "Government as a system of organized theft goes back to King Leopold II," notedAdam Hochschild in 2009.[189] In July 2009, a Swiss court determined that thestatute of limitations had run out on aninternational asset recovery case of about $6.7 million of deposits of Mobutu's in a Swiss bank, and therefore the assets should be returned to Mobutu's family.[190]
President Kabila established the Commission of Repression of Economic Crimes upon his ascension to power in 2001.[191] However, in 2016 theEnough Project issued a report claiming that the Congo is run as a violentkleptocracy.[192]
In June 2020, a court in the Democratic Republic of Congo found President Tshisekedi's chief of staffVital Kamerhe guilty of corruption. He was sentenced to 20 years' hard labour, after facing charges of embezzling almost $50m (£39m) of public funds. He was the most high-profile figure to be convicted of corruption in the DRC.[193] However, Kamerhe was released already in December 2021.[194]
In November 2021, a judicial investigation targeting Kabila and his associates was opened in Kinshasa after revelations of alleged embezzlement of $138 million.[195]
The Democratic Republic of the Congo has prohibitedsame-sex marriage since 2006,[198] and attitudes towards theLGBT community are generally negative throughout the nation.[199]Violence against women is perceived by large sectors of society to be normal.[200] The United NationsCommittee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in 2006 expressed concern that in the post-war transition period, the promotion of women's human rights and gender equality is not seen as a priority.[201][202] Mass rapes, sexual violence and sexual slavery are used as a weapon of war by the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and armed groups in the eastern part of the country.[203] The eastern part of the country in particular has been described as the "rape capital of the world" and the prevalence of sexual violence there described as the worst in the world.[204][205] The prevalence ofFemale genital mutilation is estimated at 5% of women[206][207] and is illegal.[208][209]
In the Kasai province, health authorities declared an ebola disease outbreak with 28 suspected cases as of 4 September 2025.[210]
The Democratic Republic of the Congo face several issues related to healthcare. Many of this is attributed to factors such as conflicts and political instabilities.[211]
The result is difficulty in providing transportation for medical treatment and supplies. In addition, financial inequalities prevent access to services as well in North and South Kivu.[212] Medical supplies and equipment have also been looted from healthcare facilities.[213]
In the beginning of the 2025 quarter, there was a drop in 50% of children under the age of five years old visiting medical facilities, compared to the same quarter from last year. Also, the number of vaccinated children dropped from 67,000 to 29,000 when comparing the first quarter of 2023 to that of 2025.[214]
The economy of the DR Congo has grown from US$9.02 billion at the end of the Second Congo War in 2003 to US$72.48 billion in 2024 bynominal GDP,[215] and from$29.23 billion to $190.13 billion byPPP-adjusted GDP during the same time period.[216] Minerals and metal, specificallycobalt andcopper, made up 80% of the country's exports in 2023.[24][217] Its largest trade partner by a significant margin isChina, which represented 41% of its exports in 2024, followed byZambia,South Africa,Singapore, and theUnited Arab Emirates.[218] The DRC's economy, especially its mining sector, received significant foreign investment, and after the early 2000s it experienced high GDP growth rates that were above the average for sub-Saharan Africa.[219] This led to improvements in infrastructure,[219] but the growth has not alleviated poverty for the population, the majority of which (65%) is involved insubsistence agriculture.[217] Most jobs are informal and there is also very high youth unemployment.[217] An estimated 73.5% of people in the DRC lived below theinternational poverty line of US$2.15 per day as of 2024, making the it among the five poorest countries in the world.[161] The DRC had the lowestHuman Development Index of the 187 ranked countries through 2011.[220] Agriculture is also a large sector of the economy,[25] though its output has declined over the past several decades[221] and the country is dependent on food imports.[217] As of 2023food-price inflation had reached 173%.[222]
At independence in 1960, the DRC was the second-most-industrialized country in Africa after South Africa; it boasted a thriving mining sector and a relatively productive agriculture sector.[223] It is widely considered one of the world's richest countries in natural resources; its untapped deposits of raw minerals are estimated to be worth in excess of US$24 trillion.[224][225][226] Despite such vast mineral wealth, the economy of the DRC has declined drastically since the mid-1980s. The country generated up to 70% of its export revenue from minerals in the 1970s and 1980s and was particularly hit when resource prices deteriorated at that time.[227] Due to the fall in commodity prices, widespread corruption, and the collapse ofthe currency fromhyperinflation, by the early 1990s the formal economy had nearly ceased to exist, with much of the population depending on subsistence agriculture or informal bartering.[228] The new government tried to implement a currency reform in 1997 after the First Congo War, but was disrupted by outbreak of the Second Congo War in 1998,[229] which worsened all of the problems, along with infrastructure breakdown and the lack of a clear legal system. Economic stability improved in 2003 with assistance from international donors following the withdrawal of foreign troops,[230] though continuing conflicts and the resulting humanitarian crisis still undermine economic development.[217][161]
Rough diamonds ≈1 to 1.5 mm in size from the DR Congo
The mining sector has been responsible for much of the DRC's economic growth since the Second Congo War.[231] The DRC is the world's largest producer of cobalt ore, accounting for 70% of global production in 2023,[222] and a major producer of copper anddiamonds.[232] It has 70% of the world'scoltan, a third of its cobalt, more than 30% of its diamond reserves, and a tenth of its copper.[233][234] In February 2018, global asset management firmAllianceBernstein[235] defined the DRC as economically "the Saudi Arabia of the electric vehicle age," because of its cobalt resources, cobalt being essential in the production of thelithium-ion batteries that power manyelectric vehicles.[236] Diamonds come fromKasaï Province in the central DRC, though by far the largest mines are located in southernKatanga Province and are highly mechanized, with a capacity of several million tons per year of copper and cobalt ore, and refining capability for metal ore. The DRC is the second-largest diamond-producing nation in the world,[d] and artisanal and small-scale miners account for most of its production.
Smaller-scale economic activity fromartisanal mining occurs in theinformal sector and is not reflected in GDP data.[237] A third of the DRC's diamonds are believed to be smuggled out of the country, making it difficult to quantify diamond production levels.[238] In 2002, tin was discovered in the east of the country but to date has only been mined on a small scale.[239] Smuggling ofconflict minerals such as coltan andcassiterite, ores oftantalum and tin, respectively, helped to fuel the war in the eastern Congo.[240] Open-pit cobalt mining has led todeforestation and habitat destruction.[241]
Katanga Mining Limited, a Swiss-owned company, owns theLuilu Metallurgical Plant, which has a capacity of 175,000 tonnes of copper and 8,000 tonnes of cobalt per year, making it the largest cobalt refinery in the world. After a major rehabilitation program, the company resumed copper production operations in December 2007 and cobalt production in May 2008.[242]
During 2007–08, Joseph Kabila's administration entered a 'resources-for-infrastructure' deal with China, creating thejoint ventureSicomines (Sino-Congolais des Mines), with the majority of the shares owned by theChina Railway Engineering Corporation (CREC) while the DRC'sGécamines owned the rest. The company received mining rights in exchanged for investing US$3 billion into building infrastructure.[243] Sicomines began production in 2015.[244] The deal has received criticism for terms that appeared to be disproportionately favorable to China at the expense of the DRC.[245] Félix Tshisekedi's administration ordered an investigation into the deal, which concluded that less than US$1 billion had been spent on infrastructure. Tshisekedi renegotiated the agreement to add new terms, and in 2024 this led to the infrastructure investment being increased to US$7 billion.[246]
In April 2013, anti-corruption NGOs revealed that Congolese tax authorities had failed to account for $88 million from the mining sector, despite booming production and positive industrial performance. The missing funds date from 2010 and tax bodies should have paid them into the central bank.[247] Later in 2013, theExtractive Industries Transparency Initiative suspended the country's candidacy for membership due to insufficient reporting, monitoring and independent audits, but in July 2013 the country improved its accounting and transparency practices to the point where the EITI gave the country full membership.
Map of the transport network in the DRC, including major rail, road, and water routesThe Matadi railway station, part of theMatadi–Kinshasa RailwaySection of National Road 1 betweenBoma andMoanda, Kongo Central
The DRC has 152,373 kilometres (94,680 mi) of roads, out of which only 3,047 kilometres (1,893 mi) are paved. It also has 4,007 kilometres (2,490 mi) of railways, with most beingnarrow-gauge.[248] The infrastructure is in a state of disrepair, and the national highway system is very limited; reaching the capital by road is not possible from many parts of the country.[249] Since the early 2000s there have been improvements to the road network, but the dense forests and numerous rivers in the DRC make construction and maintenance difficult.[250] Air and river transportation have an important role, due to the terrain and the poor state of the road and rail networks.[251] Air travel has seen an increase since the early 2000s, with 24 city pairs having airline service as of 2007, although it has a poor safety record.[252] All air carriers certified by the DRC have been banned from European Union airports because of inadequate safety standards.[253] Despite this, airlines are seen as the most reliable form of domestic travel.[249][254] There are eight airlines in the country,[248] including theflag carrierCongo Airways, and several international airlines serviceKinshasa's international airport. Besides Kinshasa there are three other international airports in the DRC, which are atLubumbashi,Kisangani, andGoma.[254]
The DRC has about 15,000 kilometres (9,300 mi) ofnavigablewaterways,[255] with the Congo River serving as the spine. Water transport has traditionally been the dominant means of moving around in the DRC and is also used to fill gaps between roads. Around two million tons of cargo pass through the port of Kinshasa on the Congo River every year, more than triple the volume moved by the national railroad company,Société nationale des chemins de fer du Congo (SNCC). River transports are owned by many private operators.[256] The country's three economic hubs—Kinshasa in the west, Lubumbashi in the south, and Kinsangani in the northeast—are not connected by roads or rail.[257] The rail system is concentrated in the southeast, and Kinshasa is connected by river ferry toIlebo, where the rail line to Lubumbashi begins. This line is also critical for the movement of metal and minerals from the southern DRC to ports in Angola or South Africa (via Zambia) to be exported overseas.[255][258] There is an electrified line between Kinshasa and the Atlantic seaport of Matadi. The track androlling stock of the SNCC system is in poor condition, though the more recently built Matadi–Kinshasa line has better track.[259][260]
There are 44national roads[261] with a total of 58,358 kilometres (36,262 mi),[254][262] but three of them are considered the most important.National Road No. 1 (RN1) is the main highway of the road system, connecting seaports in Kongo Central with Kinshasa and cities in the interior, such as Lubumbashi. RN1 reaches the border with Zambia in the south.[263]National Road 2 (RN2) connects the central city of Mbuji-Mayi with Goma in the east, with most of it outside of the Kivu region being in a bad condition, andNational Road 3 (RN3) connects Goma to Kisangani, from where a river boat can be taken to Kinshasa.[256][262][264]
The generation and distribution of electricity is controlled bySociété nationale d'électricité (SNEL), but only 15% of the country has access to electricity.[265] The DRC has the infrastructure for hydro-electricity from the Congo River at theInga dams. Both coal and crude oil resources were mainly used domestically up to 2008.[266] As of 2010, the country had 2,400megawatts ofinstalled capacity, with only 1,000 MW functioning, and the only interconnected part of the power grid is the high voltage transmission line between the Inga dams in Kongo Central and the southern DRC.[267] This line runs to the Zambian border and is also used to export electricity to Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa.[268] Almost half of companies in the DRC have their own generators due to blackouts and the limitations of the power grid.[269] The country has a river system that could provide hydro-electric power to the entire continent, according to a UN report on the country's strategic significance and its potential role as an economic power in central Africa.[270] The DRC's electricity generation potential from hydro-power is estimated at 100,000 MW.[269] The DRC is a member of three electrical power pools. These are Southern African Power Pool, East African Power Pool, and Central African Power Pool.
Because of abundant sunlight, the potential for solar development is very high in the DRC. There are already about 836 solar power systems in the DRC, with a total power of 83 MW, located inÉquateur (167), Katanga (159), Nord-Kivu (170), the two Kasaï provinces (170), and Bas-Congo (170). Also, the 148 Caritas network system has a total power of 6.31 MW.[271]
Democratic Republic of the Congo's population between 1960 and 2017
TheCIA World Factbook estimated the population to be over 115 million as of 2024.[272] Between 1950 and 2000, the country's population nearly quadrupled from 12.2 million to 46.9 million.[273] Since 2000, it has maintained a high growth rate of about 3–3.5% per year, growing from 47 million to an estimated 112 million.
Over 250 ethnic groups and 450 tribes (ethnic subgroups) populate the DRC. They are in theBantu,Sudanic,Nilotic,Ubangian andPygmy linguistic groups. Because of this diversity, there is no dominant ethnic group in the Congo, however the following ethnic groups account for 51.5% of the population:[15]
In 2021, the UN estimated the country's population to be 96 million,[274][275] a rapid increase from 39.1 million in 1992 despite the ongoing war.[276] As many as 250 ethnic groups have been identified and named. About 600,000Pygmies live in the DRC.[277]
Population fleeing their villages due to fighting between FARDC and rebels groups, Sake North Kivu 30 April 2012
Given the often unstable situation in the country and the condition of state structures, it is extremely difficult to obtain reliable migration data. However, evidence suggests that DRC continues to be a destination country for immigrants, in spite of recent declines in their numbers. Immigration is very diverse in nature; refugees and asylum-seekers – products of the numerous and violent conflicts in theGreat Lakes Region – constitute an important subset of the population. Additionally, the country's large mine operations attract migrant workers from Africa and beyond. There is also considerable migration for commercial activities from other African countries and the rest of the world, but these movements are not well studied.[280] Transit migration towards South Africa and Europe also plays a role.
Immigration to the DRC has decreased steadily over the past two decades, most likely as a result of the armed violence that the country has experienced. According to theInternational Organization for Migration, the number of immigrants in the DRC has fallen from just over one million in 1960, to 754,000 in 1990, to 480,000 in 2005, to an estimated 445,000 in 2010. Official figures are unavailable, partly due to the predominance of theinformal economy in the DRC. Data are also lacking on irregular immigrants, however given neighbouring countries' ethnic links to DRC nationals, irregular migration is assumed to be a significant phenomenon.[280]
Figures for Congolese nationals abroad vary greatly depending on the source; sources believe there are between three and six million Congolese living abroad. This discrepancy is due to a lack of official, reliable data. Emigrants from the DRC are above all long-term emigrants, the majority of whom live in Africa and to a lesser extent in Europe; 79.7% and 15.3% respectively, according to estimated 2000 data. New destination countries include South Africa and various points en route to Europe. The DRC has produced a considerable number ofrefugees andasylum-seekers located in the region and beyond. These numbers peaked in 2004 when, according toUNHCR, there were more than 460,000 refugees from the DRC; in 2008, Congolese refugees numbered 367,995 in total, 68% of whom were living in other African countries.[280]
Since 2003, more than 400,000 Congolese migrants have been expelled fromAngola.[281]
Europeans and Asians makeup a significant part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo's migrant population. Most Europeans and Asians went to the country for temporary employment.[282]
The Democratic Republic of the Congo speaks a variant ofBelgian French (dark red), compared to other parts of Africa
French is theofficial language of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[283] It is culturally accepted as thelingua franca, facilitating communication among the many different ethnic groups of the Congo. According to a 2018OIF report, 49 million Congolese people (51% of the population) could read and write French.[284] A 2021 survey found that 74% of the population could speak French, making it the most widely spoken language in the country.[285]
In Kinshasa, 67% of the population in 2014 could read and write French, and 68.5% could speak and understand it.[286]
In 2024, there were around 12 million native French speakers in the country.[287]
Approximately 242 languages are spoken in the country, of which four have the status of national languages:Kituba (Kikongo),Lingala,Tshiluba, andSwahili (Congo Swahili). Although some limited number of people speak these as first languages, most of the population speak them as a second language, after the native language of their own ethnic group. Lingala was the official language of theForce Publique under Belgian colonial rule and remains to this day the predominant language of the armed forces. Since the recent rebellions, a good part of the army in the east also uses Swahili, where it competes to be the regionallingua franca.
UnderBelgian rule, the Belgians instituted the teaching and use of the four Bantu languages in primary schools, making it one of the few African nations to have literacy in local languages during the European colonial period. This trend was reversed after independence, when French became the sole language of education at all levels.[288] Since 1975, the four national languages have been reintroduced in the first two years of primary education, with French becoming the sole language of education from the third year onward, but in practice many primary schools in urban areas solely use French from the first year of school onward.[288]
Portuguese is taught in public schools as a foreign language due to theAngolan, and to a lesser extentMozambican immigrant and refugee communities. Brazil has also been promoting the language in Africa.[289] Thelexical similarity and comparable phonology of French to Portuguese makes it a relatively easy language for people to learn. Many of the roughly 175,000 Portuguese speakers in the DRC are Angolans who fled violence during theAngolan War of Independence andAngolan Civil War of the late 20th century.[290] Most of them have been repatriated back since the war ended in 2002.[291]
Christianity is the predominant religion of the DRC. A 2013–14 survey, conducted by theDemographic and Health Surveys Program in 2013–2014 indicated that Christians constituted 93.7% of the population (with Catholics making up 29.7%, Protestants 26.8%, and other Christians 37.2%). A new Christian religious movement,Kimbanguism, had the adherence of 2.8%, while Muslims made up 1%.[292] Other recent estimates have found Christianity the majority religion, followed by 95.8% of the population according to a 2010Pew Research Center[293] estimate, while theCIA World Factbook reports this figure to be 95.9%.[272] The proportion of followers of Islam is variously estimated from 1%[294] to 12%.[295]
There are about 35 million Catholics in the country[2] with sixarchdioceses and 41dioceses.[296] The impact of the Catholic Church is difficult to overestimate. Schatzberg has called it the country's "only truly national institution apart from the state."[297] Its schools have educated over 60% of the nation's primary school students and more than 40% of its secondary students. The church owns and manages an extensive network of hospitals, schools, and clinics, as well as many diocesan economic enterprises, including farms, ranches, stores, and artisans' shops.[citation needed]
Sixty-two Protestant denominations are federated under the umbrella of theChurch of Christ in the Congo. It is often referred to asthe Protestant Church, since it covers most of the DRC Protestants. With more than 25 million members, it constitutesone of the largest Protestant bodies in the world.
Kimbanguism was seen as a threat to the colonial regime and was banned by the Belgians. Kimbanguism, officially "the church of Christ on Earth by the prophet Simon Kimbangu", has about three million members,[298] primarily among the Bakongo ofKongo Central and Kinshasa.
Islam has been present in the Democratic Republic of the Congo since the 18th century, when Arab traders fromEast Africa "pushed" into the interior for ivory and alleged slave-trading purposes. However, most Muslims are native to the land. Today, Muslims constitute approximately 1% of the Congolese population according to the Pew Research Center. The majority areSunni Muslims.[citation needed]
The first members of theBaháʼí Faith to live in the country came from Uganda in 1953. Four years later, the first local administrative council was elected. In 1970, the National Spiritual Assembly (national administrative council) was first elected. Though the religion was banned in the 1970s and 1980s, due to misrepresentations of foreign governments, the ban was lifted by the end of the 1980s. In 2012, plans were announced to build a nationalBaháʼí House of Worship in the country.[citation needed]
Traditional religions embody such concepts asmonotheism,animism,vitalism,spirit andancestor worship,witchcraft, and sorcery and vary widely among ethnic groups. The syncretic sects often merge elements of Christianity with traditional beliefs and rituals and are not recognized by mainstream churches as part of Christianity. New variants of ancient beliefs have become widespread, led by US-inspired Pentecostal churches which have been in the forefront of witchcraft accusations, particularly against children and the elderly.[clarification needed][299] Children accused of witchcraft are sent away from homes and family, often to live on the street, which can lead to physical violence against these children.[300][clarification needed][301] There are charities supporting street children such as theCongo Children Trust.[302] The Congo Children Trust's flagship project is Kimbilio,[303] which works to reunite street children inLubumbashi. The usual term for these children isenfants sorciers (child witches) orenfants dits sorciers (children accused of witchcraft). Non-denominational church organizations have been formed to capitalize on this belief by charging exorbitant fees forexorcisms. Though recently outlawed, children have been subjected in these exorcisms to often-violent abuse at the hands of self-proclaimed prophets and priests.[304]
A classroom in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
In 2014, theliteracy rate for the population between the ages of 15 and 49 was estimated to be 75.9% (88.1% male and 63.8% female) according to aDHS nationwide survey.[305] The education system is governed by three government ministries: theMinistère de l'Enseignement Primaire, Secondaire et Professionnel (MEPSP), theMinistère de l'Enseignement Supérieur et Universitaire (MESU) and theMinistère des Affaires Sociales (MAS). Primary education is neither free nor compulsory,[citation needed] even though the Congolese constitution says it should be (Article 43 of the 2005 Congolese Constitution).[306]
As a result of theFirst andSecond Congo Wars in the late 1990s—early 2000s, over 5.2 million children in the country did not receive any education.[307] Since the end of the civil war, the situation has improved tremendously, with the number of children enrolled in primary schools rising from 5.5 million in 2002 to 16.8 million in 2018, and the number of children enrolled in secondary schools rising from 2.8 million in 2007 to 4.6 million in 2015 according toUNESCO.[308]
Actual school attendance has also improved greatly in recent years, with primary school net attendance estimated to be 82.4% in 2014 (82.4% of children ages 6–11 attended school; 83.4% for boys, 80.6% for girls).[309]
The incidence of yellow fever-related fatalities in DRC is relatively low. According to the World Health Organization's (WHO) report in 2021, only two individuals died due to yellow fever in DRC.[316]
According to theWorld Bank Group, in 2016, 26,529 people died on the roads in DRC due to traffic accidents.[317]
United Nations emergency food relief agency warned that amid the escalating conflict and worsening situation followingCOVID-19 in the DRC, millions of lives were at risk as they could die of hunger. According to the data of theWorld Food Programme, in 2020, four in ten people in Congo lacked food security and about 15.6 million were facing a potential hunger crisis.[320]
Air pollution levels in the Democratic Republic of the Congo are very unhealthy. In 2020, annual average air pollution in the DRC stood at 34.2 μg/m3, which is almost 6.8 times theWorld Health Organization PM2.5 guideline (5 μg/m3: set in September 2021).[321] These pollution levels are estimated to reduce thelife expectancy of an average citizen of the DRC by almost 2.9 years.[321] Currently, the DRC does not have a national ambient air quality standard.[322]
The culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo reflects the diversity of its numerous ethnic groups and their differing ways of life throughout the country—from the mouth of the River Congo on the coast, upriver through the rainforest and savanna in its centre, to the more densely populated mountains in the far east.[323] Since the late 19th century, traditional ways of life have undergone changes brought about by colonialism, the struggle for independence, the stagnation of the Mobutu era, and most recently, the First and Second Congo Wars. Despite these pressures, the customs and cultures of the Congo have retained much of their individuality. The country's 81 million inhabitants (2016) are mainly rural. The 30% who live in urban areas have been the most open toWestern influences.
Congo has a rich musical heritage, rooted in traditional rhythms.[324] The earliest known form of popularpartnered dance music in Congo wasMaringa, denoting aKongolese dance practised within the formerKingdom of Loango, encompassing parts of the present-day Republic of the Congo, southern Gabon andCabinda.[325] The style gained popularity in the 1920s–1930s, introducing the "bar-dancing" culture inLéopoldville (now Kinshasa), incorporating unique elements like abass drum, a bottle as atriangle, and anaccordion.[326][327]
The 1960s and 1970s saw the emergence ofZaïko Langa Langa, one of the most innovative groups of the genre, which has crossed generations and is considered part of Congolese heritage and pop culture,[329] as well assoukous, anurbandance music style that evolved from Congolese rumba. Soukous led to diverse offshoots, such asekonda saccadé, reflecting theMongo rhythmic influence, andmokonyonyon, emulatingpelvic thrust dance movements from theOtetela ethnic background.[328] The same soukous, under the guidance of "le sapeur",Papa Wemba, have set the tone for a generation of young men always dressed up in exorbitant designer clothes. They came to be known as the fourth generation of Congolese music and mostly come from the former prominent bandWenge Musica.[330][331][332][333][334]
Political and economic challenges under Mobutu prompted a mass exodus of musicians to Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia,Sierra Leone,Liberia,Europe andAsia, expanding the spread of Congolese urban music.[328][335][336] Notably, the quartet Ry-Co Jazz played a crucial role in globalizing Congolese music, touringWest Africa, theCaribbean, and France.[328] By the 1980s, numerous Congolese musicians were based in Europe, facilitating the global dissemination of their musical prowess. Congolese lead guitarists became a sought-after commodity, attracting bands worldwide eager to infuse a Congolese flavor into their compositions or learn the intricate art of Congolese guitar dexterity.[328]
Many sports are played in the DRC, includingfootball, basketball, baseball, andrugby. The sports are played in numerous stadiums throughout the country, including theStade Frederic Kibassa Maliba.[339] As Zaire, they participated in the1974 FIFA World Cup, where they would be drawn into a group containing Scotland, Yugoslavia, and Brazil. The team would concede fourteen goals and fail to score, finishing bottom of the group.[340]
Internationally, the country is especially famous for its professional basketballNBA and football players.Dikembe Mutombo is one of the best African basketball players to ever play the game. Mutombo is well known for humanitarian projects in his home country.Bismack Biyombo,Christian Eyenga,Jonathan Kuminga, andEmmanuel Mudiay are others who gained significant international attention in basketball. Several Congolese players and players of Congolese descent—includingRomelu Lukaku,Yannick Bolasie,Yoane Wissa, andDieumerci Mbokani—have gained prominence in world football. DR Congo has twice won theAfrican Cup of Nations football tournament.
^The term "Kikongo" in the Constitution is actually referring to the Kituba language – which is known asKikongo ya leta by its speakers – not theKongo language proper. The confusion arises from the fact that the government of the DRC officially recognizes and refers to the language as "Kikongo".
^abcdeCentral Intelligence Agency (2014)."Democratic Republic of the Congo".The World Factbook. Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency.Archived from the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved29 April 2014.
^Ghislain C. Kabwit,Zaïre: the Roots of the Continuing Crisis, Cambridge University Press, 1979
^Jean-Jacques Arthur Malu-Malu,Le Congo Kinshasa, KARTHALA Editions, 2014, p. 171
^James Barbot,An Abstract of a Voyage to Congo River, Or the Zair and to Cabinde in the Year 1700 (1746). James Hingston Tuckey,Narrative of an Expedition to Explore the River Zaire, Usually Called the Congo, in South Africa, in 1816 (1818). "Congo River, calledZahir orZaire by the natives" John Purdy,Memoir, Descriptive and Explanatory, to Accompany the New Chart of the Ethiopic or Southern Atlantic Ocean, 1822, p. 112.
^Yellen, John E. (1 September 1998). "Barbed Bone Points: Tradition and Continuity in Saharan and Sub-Saharan Africa".African Archaeological Review.15 (3):173–98.doi:10.1023/A:1021659928822.ISSN0263-0338.S2CID128432105.
^Hochschild, A. (1999). King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa.The Wilson Quarterly,23(1).
^Sanderson, Jean-Paul (2020). "Du reflux à la croissance démographique : comment la démographie congolaise a-t-elle été influencée par la colonisation ?". In Goddeeris, Idesbald; Lauro, Amandine; Vanthemsche, Guy (eds.).Le Congo colonial: Une histoire en questions (in French). Renaissance du Livre. p. 124.doi:10.14375/NP.9782369439875.ISBN978-2-507-05788-6.
^Ndaywel è Nziem, Isidore.Histoire générale du Congo: De l'héritage ancien à la République Démocratique [General History of the Congo: From Ancient Heritage to the Democratic Republic] (in French).
^Tim Stanley (October 2012)."Belgium's Heart of Darkness".History Today. Vol. 62, no. 10.Archived from the original on 21 November 2016. Retrieved30 November 2016.
^McCrummen, Stephanie (4 August 2009)."Nearly Forgotten Forces of WWII".The Washington Post. Washington Post Foreign Service.Archived from the original on 14 October 2017. Retrieved26 August 2017.
^Kanza, Thomas R. (1994).The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo (expanded ed.). Rochester, Vermont: Schenkman Books, Inc.ISBN978-0-87073-901-9.
^abBerwouts, Kris; Reyntjens, Filip (2019). "The Democratic Republic of Congo: The Great Electoral Robbery (and How and Why Kabila Got Away with It)".Egmont Institute.JSTORresrep21375.
^Nafziger, E. Wayne; Raimo Frances Stewart (2000).War, Hunger, and Displacement: The Origins of Humanitarian Emergencies. Faculty of Philosophy Columbia University. p. 261.ISBN978-0-19-829739-0.
^The law on sexual violence, DRC 2006 (Les lois sur les violences sexuelles) reads (in French):"Article 3, Paragraphe 7: De la mutilation sexuelle; Article 174g; Sera puni d'une peine de servitude pénale de deux à cinq ans et d'une amende de deux cent mille francs congolais constants, quiconque aura posé un acte qui porte atteinte à l'intégrité physique ou fonctionnelle des organes génitaux d'une personne. Lorsque la mutilation a entraîné la mort, la peine est de servitude pénale à perpétuité.""Les lois sur les violences sexuelles" [The laws against sexual violence]. Archived fromthe original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved12 November 2014.
^"Enquête Démographique et de Santé (EDS-RDC) 2013–2014"(PDF) (in French). Ministère du Plan et Suivi de la Mise en œuvre de la Révolution de la Modernité, Ministère de la Santé Publique. p. 36.Archived(PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved20 April 2018.
^(in French) Constitution de la République démocratique du Congo – Wikisource[1]Archived 25 October 2011 at theWayback Machine. Fr.wikisource.org. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
^"Congo, Democratic Republic of the."www.dol.gov 2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2006).This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
^De Boeck, Filip & Plissart, Marie-Françoise. (2004)Kinshasa: Tales of the Invisible City Ludion.ISBN90-5544-528-2. Photography and analysis of everyday life in Kinshasa, together with extensive quotations from contemporary Congolese. The last chapter is available as a PDFhere
^Ethnomusicology. Middletown, Connecticut, United States: Wesleyan University Press for the Society for Ethnomusicology. 2008. pp. 297–309.
^International, Courrier."Le Congolais".Courrierinternational.com/. Courrier International.Archived from the original on 26 November 2015. Retrieved26 November 2015.
Exenberger, Andreas/Hartmann, Simon.Doomed to Disaster? Long-term Trajectories of Exploitation in the Congo, Paper to be presented at the Workshop "Colonial Extraction in the Netherlands Indies and Belgian Congo: Institutions, Institutional Change and Long Term Consequences", Utrecht 3–4 December 2010.
Gondola, Ch. Didier, "The History of Congo", Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002.
Joris, Lieve, translated by Waters, Liz,The Rebels' Hour, Atlantic, 2008.
Justenhoven, Heinz-Gerhard; Ehrhart, Hans Georg. Intervention im Kongo: eine kritische Analyse der Befriedungspolitik von UN und EU.Stuttgart:Kohlhammer Verlag, 2008. (In German)ISBN978-3-17-020781-3.
Larémont, Ricardo René, ed. 2005.Borders, nationalism and the African state. Boulder, Colorado and London: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Lemarchand, Reni and Hamilton, Lee;Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide. Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1994.
Mealer, Bryan: "All Things Must Fight To Live", 2008.ISBN1-59691-345-2.
Melvern, Linda,Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide and the International Community. Verso, 2004.
Miller, Eric: "The Inability of Peacekeeping to Address the Security Dilemma", 2010.ISBN978-3-8383-4027-2.
Mwakikagile, Godfrey,Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, Third Edition, New Africa Press, 2006, "Chapter Six: Congo in The Sixties: The Bleeding Heart of Africa", pp. 147–205,ISBN978-0-9802534-1-2; Mwakikagile, Godfrey,Africa and America in The Sixties: A Decade That Changed The Nation and The Destiny of A Continent, First Edition, New Africa Press, 2006,ISBN978-0-9802534-2-9;Congo in The Sixties,ISBN978-1448665709, 2009;Africa: Dawn of a New Era,ISBN978-9987160488, 2015.
Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges,The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A People's History, 2002.
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O'Hanlon, Redmond,No Mercy: A Journey into the Heart of the Congo, 1998.
Prunier, Gérard,Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe, 2011 (also published asFrom Genocide to Continental War: The Congolese Conflict and the Crisis of Contemporary Africa: The Congo Conflict and the Crisis of Contemporary Africa).
Schulz, Manfred.Entwicklungsträger in der DR Kongo: Entwicklungen in Politik, Wirtschaft, Religion, Zivilgesellschaft und Kultur, Berlin: Lit, 2008, (in German)ISBN978-3-8258-0425-1.
Karen Fung (ed.)."Democratic Republic of the Congo".Africa South of the Sahara: Selected Internet Resources. Stanford University.Archived from the original on 4 October 2014. Retrieved8 September 2014.
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