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| The Deluge | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part ofNorthern Wars (Second Northern War and the1654–1667 Russo-Polish War) | |||||||||
_during_The_Deluge_and_Chmielnicki%2527s_Uprising.png) The occupation of the Commonwealth by Sweden, Russia, Brandenburg and Khmelnytsky's Cossacks | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| 69,000 | 191,000[4] | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Total dead: 3,000,000–4,000,000[5] | |||||||||
TheDeluge was a series of mid-17th-century military campaigns in thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In a stricter sense, the term refers to theSwedish invasion and occupation of the Commonwealth as a theatre of the Second Northern War (1655–1660) only; in Poland and Lithuania this period is called theSwedish Deluge (Polish:potop szwedzki,Lithuanian: švedų tvanas,Swedish:svenska syndafloden), or less commonly theRusso–Swedish Deluge (Polish:Potop szwedzko-rosyjski)[6][better source needed] due to the simultaneous Russo-Polish War.[7] In a wider sense, it applies to the period between theKhmelnytsky Uprising of 1648 and theTruce of Andrusovo in 1667, comprising the Polish theatres of theRusso-Polish andSecond Northern Wars.[8] The term "deluge" (potop in Polish) was popularized byHenryk Sienkiewicz in his novelThe Deluge (1886).
During the wars the Commonwealth lost approximately one third of its population as well as its status as agreat power due to invasions by Sweden and Russia.[9] According to Professor Andrzej Rottermund, manager of theRoyal Castle inWarsaw, the destruction of Poland in the Deluge was more extensive than the destruction of the country inWorld War II. Rottermund claims that Swedish invaders robbed the Commonwealth of its most important riches, and most of the stolen items never returned to Poland.[10] Warsaw, the capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, was destroyed by the Swedes, and out of a pre-war population of 20,000, only 2,000 remained in the city after the war.[11] According to the 2012 Polish estimates, the material damage caused by the Swedish army amounted to 4 billionzłotys. 188 cities and towns, 186 villages, 136 churches, 89 palaces, and 81 castles were completely destroyed in Poland.[12]
In 1648,Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a popular uprising ofZaporozhian Cossacks and Ukrainian peasants discontented with the rule ofPolish and Lithuanian magnates. Although the initial phase of the rebellion ended (after much destruction) at theBattle of Berestechko (1651), it brought into focus the rivalry between Russia and the Commonwealth for hegemony overUkraine and over the eastern Slavic lands in general. Thus, in October 1653, the RussianZemsky Sobor declared war on the Commonwealth, and in June 1654 the forces of TsarAlexis of Russia invaded the eastern half of Poland-Lithuania, starting theRusso-Polish War of 1654–1667. In the summer of 1654, the Russians managed to capture most important cities and strongholds of today'sBelarus.Smolensk was captured after a siege on October 3, 1654. TheSwedish Empire, which technically already was at war with the Commonwealth (a ceasefire agreement existed from 1629 and was prolonged from 1635 to 1661), invaded in July 1655 and occupied the remaining half of the country.
Following theThirty Years' War, theSwedish Empire emerged as one of the strongest kingdoms on the continent. It had a large army but little money to pay its soldiers. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, weakened by wars with the Cossacks andTsardom of Russia, seemed like easy prey, also because its best soldiers had been either killed in the 1652Battle of Batih ormassacred after it. Furthermore, Swedes remembered claims to their throne by Polish kingsSigismund III Vasa and his sonsWładysław IV Vasa andJohn II Casimir, who themselves belonged to theHouse of Vasa. An earlier conflict, thePolish–Swedish War (1626–1629) had ended with theTreaty of Stuhmsdorf.
The Polish–Lithuanian King John II Casimir (reigned 1648–68) lacked support among the Commonwealth nobility (szlachta) due to his sympathies with absolutistAustria and his open contempt for the "Sarmatist" culture of the nobility. Earlier, in 1643, John Casimir had become a member of theJesuits and had received the title ofCardinal. Nevertheless, in December 1646, he returned to Poland and, in October 1647, resigned his position as Cardinal to stand for election to the Polish throne, after the death of his brotherWładysław IV Vasa. He became King in 1648. However, some of the nobility supported Charles Gustav (King of Sweden from 1654 to 1660 and John Casimir's cousin) for the Polish–Lithuanian throne. Many members of the Polish nobility regarded John Casimir as a weak king or a "Jesuit-King";Grand TreasurerBogusław Leszczyński, a Protestant, andDeputy Chancellor of the CrownHieronim Radziejowski, an old enemy of the Polish King who had been exiled to Sweden, encouraged Charles Gustav to claim thePolish crown. Two Lithuanian noble princes,Janusz Radziwiłł andBogusław Radziwiłł, introduced dissension into the Commonwealth and begannegotiations with theSwedish kingCharles X Gustav of Sweden aimed at breaking up the Commonwealth and thePolish–Lithuanian union.[13] They signed theTreaty of Kėdainiai (1655), which envisaged the Radziwiłł princes ruling over two duchies carved out from theGrand Duchy of Lithuania underSwedish protection.
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In July 1655 two Swedish armies, operating fromSwedish Pomerania and theProvince of Pomerania, enteredGreater Poland, one of the richest and most developed provinces of the Commonwealth, which had for centuries been unaffected by any military conflicts, and whoselevée en masse had not been used to fighting. Greater Poland's noble camp, located in the valley of theNoteć river, near the town ofUjście, looked more like a large party, as theszlachta, gathered there to face the Swedish Army, was more interested in drinking. To make matters worse, two powerful magnates, theVoivode ofPoznańKrzysztof Opaliński, and the Voivode ofKalisz, Andrzej Karol Grudziński, argued with each other whether to fight or to give up. Polish troops lacked gunpowder, cannons, and even food, which was stolen at local villages by hungry soldiers.[14]
After an easy Swedish victory at theBattle of Ujście,Krzysztof Opaliński surrendered Greater Poland toCharles Gustav. On July 31, 1655, the army commanded byArvid Wittenberg capturedPoznań, and on August 20 nearKonin, the armies of Wittenberg and Charles Gustav joined forces, and headed for Warsaw. On September 2, the Poles lost theBattle of Sobota, and on September 4, the Swedes capturedŁowicz. Four days later, the Swedish army entered the Polish capital, becoming the first foreign army in history to capture Warsaw.[15] King Charles Gustav left a garrison in Warsaw, underBengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna, and headed southwards, in pursuit of John Casimir. On September 16, the Swedes defeated Polish troops in theBattle of Żarnów, and thePolish forces gave up resistance and surrendered to the invaders. The Polish king headed towards Kraków on September 25, and then fled to theGłogówek castle nearPrudnik inUpper Silesia. Kraków was left in the hands ofStefan Czarniecki; on October 3 Swedish forces once again defeated the Poles in theBattle of Wojnicz, which opened the road to Kraków. The ancient capital of Poland was capturedafter a siege, on October 13, 1655. With the three most populated and best developed Polish provinces in his hands (Greater Poland,Lesser Poland andMazovia), Charles Gustav decided to head back northwards toRoyal Prussia, which was defended by theVoivode of Malbork,Jakub Wejher. The Swedes, who were generally superior in training, discipline, and equipment, advanced rapidly.[16]
Meanwhile, in theGrand Duchy of Lithuania, whose eastern part had been occupied by another Swedish army underMagnus Gabriel De la Gardie since August 1655, Janusz Radziwiłł and his cousin Bogusław Radziwiłł signed theUnion of Kėdainiai (October 20, 1655), which ended Lithuania's union with Poland. The decision of the Radziwiłłs was the result of the 1654 Russian invasion, as Janusz Radziwiłł accused the Poles of not helping the Lithuanians with the defence of the Grand Duchy. The Russian capture ofVilnius (August 9, 1655) and the subsequent slaughter of its residents convinced the Lithuanian nobility that Swedish protection was the best solution.[14] The situation of the Commonwealth was desperate, but hope appeared with theTruce of Vilna (November 3), in which Poland and the Tsardom of Russia formed an anti-Swedish alliance. With Russian forces attacking Sweden inLivonia (seeRusso-Swedish War (1656–1658)), Poland finally had time to recoup and gather fresh forces. On October 12, 1655, with permission from King John Casimir,Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg signed theTreaty of Rinsk, in which the Royal Prussian nobility agreed to allow Brandenburgian garrisons in their province to defend it against the Swedish invasion (the treaty did not include the cities ofGdańsk,Elbląg andToruń). In November and December 1655 the Swedish army underGustaf Otto Stenbock captured all the towns of Royal Prussia except for Gdańsk,Puck andMalbork.
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To prevent John Casimir's return to Poland, Swedish units protected the border with Silesia. On November 18, 1655, the Swedes besieged the monastery atJasna Góra, located in Lesser Poland, near the border. Led by theGrand PriorAugustyn Kordecki, the garrison of this symbolic sanctuary-fortress of Poland held off its enemies in theSiege of Jasna Góra. The defense of Jasna Góra galvanized Polish resistance against the Swedes. The news of the siege spread across the nation, and in several areas guerrilla units were created, outraged at the Swedes' attempt to seize the monastery. On December 7, 1655, the unit of Colonel Gabriel Wojniłłowicz defeated the Swedes and their Polish collaborators nearKrosno.[17] On December 13, Polish troops under Wojniłłowicz recapturedNowy Sącz, and soon afterwards Sweden lostBiała,Dukla,Biecz,Wieliczka, andOświęcim. By late 1655, the situation in southern Lesser Poland had deteriorated to such an extent for the invaders that on December 27 they decided to lift the siege of Jasna Góra. On December 16, 1655, inSokal, Polish Crownhetmans urged the nation to fight the Swedish armies. Two days later, King John Casimir left theGłogówek in Silesia, and viaRacibórz andCieszyn, returned to Poland, arriving atLubowla on December 27. Two days later, theTyszowce Confederation was formed in support of the Polish king. John Casimir himself met with hetmansStanisław Rewera Potocki,Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski,Stanisław Lanckoroński andStefan Czarniecki in Krosno, on December 31, 1655. The meeting was also attended by PrimateAndrzej Leszczyński, and eightvoivodes.
While in Krosno, the Polish king found out about the end of the siege of Jasna Góra, and about the death of Janusz Radziwiłł. On January 12, 1656, John Casimir left Krosno, and after three days, arrived atŁańcut Castle,[18] which belonged to theLubomirski family. On February 10, the king came toLwów, which, together with Gdańsk, was one of only two major cities of the Commonwealth not seized by any of Poland's enemies. Soon Polish Army units began to concentrate in the area of Lwów, includingmilitias fromRed Ruthenia,Volhynia andLublin, as well as forces under Potocki and Prince Lubomirski, together with the garrison ofKamieniec Podolski fortress. Charles Gustav, after finding out about the return of the Polish king, ordered his armies to concentrate in Łowicz. On February 8, 1656, the Swedes defeated Czarniecki in theBattle of Gołąb, and continued their march towards Lwów, reaching theZamość Fortress on February 25. On March 1, realizing that without heavy guns it was impossible to capture the mighty stronghold, the Swedish army gave up the siege, and headed towardsBełżec. On March 3, Charles Gustav, whose units were harassed by Polish guerilla forces, decided to retreat.[18] At the same time, guerilla warfare also broke out in Mazovia and Greater Poland, and Lithuanian units under the Grand Hetman of LithuaniaPaweł Jan Sapieha began moving towards Red Ruthenia.
On March 11, the Swedish army arrived atJarosław, fighting its way across theSan river. Charles Gustav sent some of his forces to capturePrzemyśl, but on March 16 they returned to Jarosław without success. On March 22, the Swedish army set off northwards, along the San and Vistula rivers, back to Warsaw.[18] They were followed by units of Stefan Czarniecki and Aleksander Koniecpolski, and during the retreat, Polish troops supporting the invaders changed sides, joining the forces of John Casimir. On March 30, the starving, cold and tired Swedish army of 5,000 stopped nearSandomierz, which was already in Polish hands. The Swedes camped among the forests ofSandomierz Forest nearGorzyce, where they were quickly surrounded by approximately 23,000 Poles and Lithuanians. To help the besieged army, on March 27Frederick VI left Warsaw with 2,500reiters anddragoons, so John Casimir ordered the mounted units of Czarnecki and Lubomirski to face the margrave. Frederick's army was defeated on April 7 in theBattle of Warka. At Gorzyce, however, second-quality Polish forces remained, and the Swedish king managed to break out (April 5), and on April 13, Charles Gustav reached Warsaw. Meanwhile, the Polish king made theLwów Oath (April 1), in which he entrusted the Commonwealth to the Blessed Virgin Mary's protection, and declared her 'The Queen of the Polish Crown'.
After the Battle of Warka, Czarniecki and Lubomirski decided to head towards Greater Poland andKujawy, to support guerrilla forces active there. By April 9, Polish troops reached Royal Prussia, capturingBydgoszcz andNakło (April 19). The Polish attempt to captureToruń, on April 17, was a failure. After a short rest, Stefan Czarniecki considered a raid ofSwedish Pomerania, but other Polish leaders opposed this idea.[18] Charles Gustav decided to prevent the Poles from taking control of the northern districts of the country, and departed Warsaw with an army of 10,000 (April 17). On April 21, the Lithuanians under Sapieha freed Lublin, and on April 23, the Lithuanian army reachedPraga, which today is a right-bank district of Warsaw. The forces of Czarniecki and Lubomirski joined other troops nearPiła, but on May 7 they were defeated in theBattle of Kłecko, despite their numerical superiority. After the battle, the surviving Polish units regrouped nearGniezno, and in late May, they headed for Warsaw, to help the Lithuanians in thesiege of the Polish capital (April 24 – July 1). Warsaw was being defended byArvid Wittenberg with 2,000 soldiers, as the main Swedish army was busy besieging Gdańsk. Wittenberg capitulated on July 1, 1656.
Already in late 1655, Charles Gustav realized that it would be impossible for him to control the Commonwealth. The Swedish king decided to find allies, who would help him to divide Poland-Lithuania. On June 29, 1656, he signed theTreaty of Marienburg, in which he offeredFrederick William, Elector of Brandenburg a reward for fighting on his side.Brandenburg-Prussia was promised sovereignty in four voivodeships – Poznań, Kalisz, Łęczyca, and Sieradz. On July 28, a reinforced Swedish–Brandenburgian army, under Charles Gustav, set out for Warsaw. Even though the allied army was smaller, it still managed to defeat the Poles and Lithuanians in theBattle of Warsaw (July 28–30), and to recapture Warsaw. This victory, however, achieved little, as the Poles retreated behind theWieprz, where they regrouped, and were soon ready to continue fighting. Finally, Charles Gustav decided to abandon Warsaw, and retreat to Royal Prussia. To punish Brandenburg-Prussia, Commonwealth forces decided to invade theDuchy of Prussia. In early October 1656, an army of 11,000 underWincenty Korwin Gosiewski entered Prussia, supported by 2,000Crimean Tatars. On October 8, Gosiewski's army won theBattle of Prostken (October 8), but after the Tatars decided to return to the Crimea, the Polish–Lithuanian army was defeated in theBattle of Filipów (October 22). In November 1656, Greater Poland's troops invaded the Brandenburger province ofNeumark, which resulted in withdrawal of Brandenburger forces from most of Greater Poland. Charles Gustav, knowing that he needed the support of the Elector, agreed to sign theTreaty of Labiau (November 20), which granted full sovereignty to the Prussian ruler, in exchange for his complete military support of Sweden in the ongoing war. The Commonwealth, on the other hand, had already been negotiating with theHouse of Habsburg. On December 1, 1656, the firstTreaty of Vienna was signed, which was followed by a secondTreaty of Vienna, in which EmperorLeopold I promised to aid John Casimir with 12,000 troops against the Swedish-Brandenburgian alliance. By late 1656, Swedish troops had been pushed out of most of the Commonwealth. They only held the right-bank half of Royal Prussia, northern Mazovia, Łowicz, Kraków, andTykocin.
In 1653, theTransylvanian Hungarian rulerGeorge II Rákóczi signed an alliance with Poland,[19][full citation needed] and the relations between the Commonwealth and Transylvania were friendly. George had even been offered the Polish crown, on condition that he convert to Catholicism.[20] Stunning Swedish successes, however, made Rákóczi change his mind. On May 18, 1656, Charles X Gustav, in a letter sent from Malbork, offered the Hungarian prince Red Ruthenia, in exchange for military support against the Commonwealth. Meanwhile, Rákóczi had already been negotiating with Bohdan Khmelnytsky, and on September 7, 1656, Transylvania and theZaporizhian Sich signed a peace treaty, which obliged both sides to help each other in war. On December 8, 1656, theTreaty of Radnot was signed, which divided Poland-Lithuania among Charles X Gustav, Bogusław Radziwiłł, Elector Frederick William, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, and George II Rákóczi. In late January 1657, the Transylvanian army of 25,000crossed theCarpathians, heading towardsMedyka, where 10,000 Cossack allies awaited them. To face the new invader, the army of hetman Stanisław Rewera Potocki rushed southwards. At the same time (January 2), in theBattle of Chojnice, the Swedes defeated the Poles. On February 26, Stefan Czarniecki and King John Casimir met inKalisz, where they decided to prevent the Swedish and Transylvanian armies from meeting.
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After joining the Cossacks, Rákóczi decided not to attack Lwów, but set off towards Kraków, where the situation of the Swedish garrison underWirtz was desperate. On March 21, Rákóczi capturedTarnów, and on March 28, he reached Kraków. Along the way to the ancient Polish capital, the Transylvanian-Cossack army burned and looted towns and villages, murdering thousands. Since his army was too busy lootingLesser Poland, only 5,000 soldiers reached Kraków, which by the Treaty of Radnot, was to be ruled by Transylvania. After leaving 2,500 soldiers to help the Swedish garrison of Kraków, Rákóczi's army headed northwards, along theVistula. On April 12, 1657, the Transylvanian-Cossack army met with Swedish forces under Charles X Gustav, atĆmielów. The joined forces began to follow the Polish Crown army under Stanisław Potocki, and the Lithuanian army under Paweł Sapieha, to force a decisive battle. On April 29, the Polish and Lithuanian armies joined forces atŁosice, and in early May 1657, the Poles decided to organize a revenge raid on Transylvania, underhetman Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski. On May 13, Rákóczi and Charles X Gustav seized the fortress ofBrześć Litewski, and on May 17, after a three-day siege, the Swedes, Cossacks, and Transylvanians captured Warsaw. Soon afterwards, however, theDano-Swedish War began, and Charles X Gustav left Poland with most of his troops. The remaining Swedish army was commanded byGustaf Otto Stenbock. The Swedish withdrawal made Rákóczi uneasy, as he was well aware of the poor quality of his soldiers. On July 7–8, 1656, at Łańcut Castle, King John Casimir and his hetmans agreed that Stefan Czarniecki would follow Rákóczi and the Cossacks, while Lubomirski's and Potocki's divisions together with Crimean Tatars.
The Ottomans were offended that George II Rakoczi, who was officially their vassal, did not ask their approval to attack Poland and did not want to open another war (in that time they tried to attack Venice through Dalmatia) but when he ignored them they ordered the Crimean Tatars to help the Polish troops and punish Rakoczi. They already replaced Rakoczi's vassal voivodes from Moldavia and Wallachia.[21]
On June 20, 1657, Stenbock was ordered by Charles X Gustav to abandon Rákóczi and head with his army toStettin. To save his skin, the ruler of Transylvania began a quick retreat southwards, towards the Carpathians. On July 11, Stefan Czarniecki's division defeated Rákóczi at Magierów near Lwów, and on July 20, the Transylvanian-Cossack army was destroyed in theBattle of Czarny Ostrów inPodolia. Three days later, Rákóczi signed a peace treaty with the Commonwealth, in which he promised to break the alliance with Sweden, withdraw his troops from Kraków and Brześć Litewski, and pay for the damage inflicted by his army. On July 26, remnants of the Transylvanian army were surrounded by the Tatars nearSkałat. Rákóczi himself managed to flee, and the army was temporarily commanded byJohn Kemény, who himself was captured by the Tatars. After six months of fighting in Poland, Rákóczi's army of 25,000 ceased to exist, with all survivors taken prisoner by the Tatars.
On August 30, the Swedish garrison left Kraków, and throughout August and September 1657, all Swedish troops in Poland moved northwards, toRoyal Prussia. Altogether, by autumn of that year, only some 8,000 Swedish soldiers remained in Poland–Lithuania. The Swedes still kept some Prussian cities, as Malbork, Elbląg,Sztum,Brodnica,Grudziądz, andToruń. On September 11, an Austrian army of 11,000, allied with Poland, concentrated near Kraków and set off toPłock, where it spent the winter. Polish army commanders and King John Casimir, gathered in Poznań on November 26, decided to delay the attack on Swedish forces in Royal Prussia until spring 1658. On November 6, 1657, Poland and Brandenburg–Prussia signed theTreaty of Bromberg.Ducal Prussia, which had previously allied itself with Sweden and attacked Poland, changed sides and guaranteed military support of the Commonwealth, in return for sovereignty (it had been afief of Poland since 1466). This treaty is regarded by historian Józef Włodarski as one of the worst mistakes in Polish history.[22]
In the spring of 1658, the Polish army, together with its Austrian allies underRaimondo Montecuccoli, began a campaign in Royal Prussia, where several key towns and cities were still in Swedish hands. On July 1, the siege of Toruń began. The heavily fortified city was defended by 2400 soldiers under Barthod Hartwig von Bülow. The Polish troops included the divisions ofKrzysztof Grodzicki, Jan Sapieha and Stefan Czarniecki. Furthermore, they were provided support by the Brandenburgian-Prussian army ofBogusław Radziwiłł, which after the Treaty of Bromberg changed sides. Altogether, almost 25,000 soldiers besieged Toruń. After a prolonged artillery bombardment, the main attack took place in the night of November 16–17, and on December 30 Toruń capitulated. Meanwhile, Stefan Czarniecki's division headed toDenmark–Norway, to help the Danes in theDano-Swedish War. In October 1658, the Polish army of 4500 reachedHamburg, and in December 1658, with the help of Polish troops, the fortress ofKolding was captured (seeBattle of Kolding).
On July 1, 1658, theSejm ordered the expulsion of thePolish Brethren, who were accused of collaborating with the Swedish invaders.
In 1659, the Swedish army still remaining in Poland underLorens von der Linde was withdrawn to major Royal Prussian fortresses – Malbork, Głowa Gdańska,Grudziądz,Elbląg, andBrodnica. In August 1659, the Polish army captured Głowa and Grudziądz, and soon afterwards, the starving Swedish garrison at Brodnica surrendered. The siege of Malbork was continued, and Polish – Brandenburgian troops blocked Elbląg. In December 1659, the siege of Elbląg began. Meanwhile, in late 1658, the Polish–Russian truce ended when Russian forces underIvan Andreyevich Khovansky (Tararui) and Jurij Aleksiejewicz Dołgorukow again attacked the Polish – Lithuanian units (seeRusso-Polish War (1654–1667)). The Russians managed to capture large parts of the Commonwealth, but were later defeated in theBattle of Konotop and theBattle of Polonka.
On May 3, 1660, theTreaty of Oliva was signed, which ended the Polish–Swedish War. After the conclusion of the conflict, Poland–Lithuania initiated a large offensive against the Russians, who were beaten in theBattle of Chudnov. In 1661,Vilnius was recaptured (December 2), and in 1663–64, Polish forces invadedLeft-bank Ukraine. The war with Russia ended with theTruce of Andrusovo (January 30, 1667).
The Deluge was the climax of a series of wars that took place in Poland–Lithuania in the mid-17th century. The Commonwealth was first affected by theKhmelnytsky Uprising, which began in 1648, and affected southeastern provinces of the country. In the final stages of the uprising, theRussians invaded Poland–Lithuania in 1654, reaching as far west as theVistula river nearPuławy. The Commonwealth also fought forces fromTransylvania andBrandenburg-Prussia, but theDuchy of Prussia gained formal Polish recognition of its independence outside of the Polish state (Treaty of Wehlau, 1657). TheTatars of theCrimean Khanate and theNogai Horde conductedalmost annual slave raids in the territories controlled by the Commonwealth.[23] In all these other invasions, only the Russian invaders caused the most similar damages to the Swedes, due to Russian raids, destructions and rapid incursion which crippled Polish industries.[citation needed]
With theTreaty of Hadiach on September 16, 1658, the Polish Crown sought to elevate theCossacks andRuthenians to a position equal to that of Poland and Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Union, and in fact transform the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth into aPolish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth (Polish:Rzeczpospolita Trojga Narodów, "Commonwealth of Three Nations"). Supported by CossackHetmanIvan Vyhovsky and thestarshyna, the treaty aimed to change the face of Eastern Europe. However, its terms never came into full operation: in addition to the unpopularity of continued integration with the Commonwealth with the majority of the Cossacks, Russia refused to recognize Hadiach, and maintained its claims toUkraine. The Russo-Polish War (1654–1667) ended with theTreaty of Andrusovo of January 13, 1667. (Poland-Lithuania profited fromTurkish participation in theRusso-Turkish War (1676–1681) due to Ottoman links with theCrimea.) The peace settlement gave Russia control over the so-calledLeft-bank Ukraine (left of the riverDnieper), with the Commonwealth retainingRight-bank Ukraine (right of the Dnieper). While initially the agreement stipulated that Russia would return Left-bank Ukraine to the Commonwealth in twenty years, the division became permanent with theEternal Peace Treaty of 1686.
The Deluge brought to an end the era of religious tolerance in the Commonwealth: mostly non-Catholic invaders antagonized Catholic (including Uniate) population. The expulsion of the ProtestantPolish Brethren from Poland in 1658 exemplified the increasing intolerance. During the Deluge, many thousands ofPolish Jews also fell victim to violence carried out by the Zaporozhian Cossacks[24] and Polish-Lithuanian forces.[25][26]
TheTreaty of Oliva signed in 1660 meant that: Poland gave up most of Livonia with Riga, retaining only part of it (Latgale – the south-eastern part of Livonia) which was in Russian hands at the time, until the Armistice of Andrusov in 1667. KingJohn II Casimir Vasa renounced his right to claim the Swedish throne for himself and those who succeeded him. He did, however, retain the title of King of Sweden for the rest of his life. Sweden had pledged to uphold freedom of trade in the Baltic.[27]
The evaluation of the outcome of the Deluge is disputed. Historians likeMichael Fredholm von Essen state that the Deluge "did not end in a Swedish defeat" and "did not end in a Polish victory".[28]
Some historians claim that Sweden won the war.[29][30][31][32][33] However, other ones claim that Sweden lost.[34][35][36][37] It is also disputed amongst historians whether the war ended favorably for Sweden or the Commonwealth.[38][39][40]
The Swedish invasion affected the richest provinces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (Greater Poland,Lesser Poland,Mazovia,Pomerelia,Kujawy,Podlasie), which for the most part had not been affected by major wars for 200 years. According to Professor Andrzej Rottermund, manager of theRoyal Castle inWarsaw, the Swedish army robbed Poland of her most precious goods – thousands of works of art, books and valuables.[10] Most of these items have never been returned to Poland, and are kept both in private Swedish hands and inStockholm museums, such as theSwedish Army Museum, andLivrustkammaren. Almost all cities, towns, castles and churches in locations where Swedish troops were stationed were destroyed, and in guides to many Polish towns and cities one can find notes that read "object destroyed during Swedish invasion". From the Royal Castle in Warsaw the Swedes plundered approximately 200 paintings, a number of carpets and Turkish tents, musical instruments, furniture, Chinese porcelain, weapons, books, manuscripts, marbles, even dresses of maids and door frames pulled from walls.[10] Meanwhile, the Russian invaders in the east had also destroyed and damaged much of the eastern part's infrastructure, partly due to heavy agricultural fertile developments there.
Hubert Kowalski of theUniversity of Warsaw Institute of Archeology says that Swedes stole anything they could lay their hands on – windows, stairs, chimneys, sculptures, floors, doors and gates. Most goods were loaded on boats and transported along theVistula to theBaltic Sea and then to Sweden. In November 2011, archaeologists of the University of Warsaw found approximately 70 items (total weight five tons), which probably come from the Warsaw Royal Castle. They sank in the Vistula while being transported to Sweden.[41] Even though Article 9 of theTreaty of Oliva stated that Sweden should return all stolen goods, all items are still kept in Stockholm and other Swedish locations. Several Polish kings (John II Casimir,John III Sobieski andStanisław II Augustus) sent official missions to Sweden, but without success. In most situations, Swedish authorities claimed that they did not know where stolen goods were.[42] In 1911, Kraków's Academy of Science sent its own mission, which was made up of renowned professors Eugeniusz Barwiński, Ludwik Birkenmajer and Jan Łoś. In Stockholm andUppsala they found 205 manuscripts and 168 rare Polish books, describing their foundings in a report. In 2002, the Warsaw Royal Castle organized an exhibition, "Eagle and Three Crowns", which presented many items stolen from Poland, and kept in Swedish museums. After the Deluge, the Commonwealth became a "cultural desert". Poland and Lithuania lost 67 libraries and 17 archives. Of all major cities of the country, onlyLwów andGdańsk were not destroyed, and when Swedish soldiers were unable to steal an item, they would destroy or burn it. In ruins were castles, palaces, churches, abbeys, towns and villages. As a result of the Swedish invasion, few pre-Baroque buildings remained in Poland. An estimated 3 million died.[43]
Among others, Swedish troops stole such items as:
According to the estimates of Polish scholars I. Ihnatowicz, Z. Landau, A. Mączak and B. Zientara, the invasion by the Swedish army and its allies (Brandenburg-Prussia and Transylvania), resulted in the loss of 25% of the population in four core Polish provinces. Lesser Poland lost 23% of population, Mazovia 40% in villages and 70% in towns, Greater Poland 50% in villages and 60% in towns. Royal Prussia lost some 60% of its population.[44] The Commonwealth's population losses are estimated at between 30% and 50% in 1648–1660.[45]
In January 2013 Marek Poznański, aPalikot Movement member of the Polish parliament, announced his plan to send thousands of postcards to European politicians and journalists, in which he wanted to convince the recipients that Poland should get financial compensation from Sweden for the destruction of the country in the deluge. Poznański claims that in the 1660 Treaty of Oliwa, Sweden pledged to return all stolen goods, which never happened. The MP had previously intervened at thePolish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and theMinistry of Culture; he also visited theEmbassy of Sweden in Warsaw.[46] A businessman from Warsaw, Sławian Krzywiński, joined Poznański, creating the Foundation of Reconstruction of Destruction Caused by the Swedish Invasion (Fundacja Odbudowy Zniszczeń Dokonanych w Czasie Potopu Szwedzkiego). According to Krzywiński, looted goods are still kept in Swedish museums and private collections. Among others, Poland lost theBraniewo Library, works ofNicolaus Copernicus, including the 1543 Nuremberg edition ofDe revolutionibus orbium coelestium, and the oldest printed text ofBogurodzica. Krzywiński states that as an act of goodwill, the Swedish side should cover the cost of reconstruction of theRawa Mazowiecka castle, which was destroyed by them in the 1650s.[47]
The population in cities like Warsaw had been reduced to only 10% of its pre-war population of 20,000, and the entire city was razed to the ground, akin to the centuries-after Nazi occupation of the city duringWorld War II.Kraków andVilnius were also devastated, with their populations being reduced by over half. Additionally, the Polish Gross national product (GNP or GNI) was reduced to 55% of its pre-war levels as a consequence of the Swedish invasion.[48]
One of the most notable effects of the devastating Deluge was the subsequent weakening of Poland's international standing. As a result of the Deluge, the Commonwealth began a subsequent period of decline.[49]
The Deluge had a major effect on Poland, and there are several books describing the war. In 1886Henryk Sienkiewicz described the Swedish invasion in his novelРоtор. Based on the novel,Jerzy Hoffman directed the filmThe Deluge (Роtор) in 1974, a classic historical work. It starredDaniel Olbrychski as the characterAndrzej Kmicic, a patriot who valiantly fought against the Swedish invasion. The film received a nomination for anOscar in 1974, but lost to the Italian filmAmarcord.
In 2000, Renata Ocieczek wrote the bookCzasy potopu szwedzkiego w literaturze polskiej (The time of the Swedish deluge in Polish literature),[50] and in 2006 Jacek Płosiński wrotePotop szwedzki na Podlasiu (Swedish deluge inPodlasie).[51] Other books about this topic include:Warszawa 1656 by Mirosław Nagielski,Krwawy sztorm ("Bloody storm") by Augustyn Necel (describing the Deluge in the region ofKaszuby),Znak Jastrzębca (The sign of theJastrzębiec) by Stanisław Maria Jankowski, andPamiętnik oblężenia Częstochowy (The memoir of the siege of Częstochowa), by FatherAugustyn Kordecki. Furthermore,James Michener describes the Deluge in his novelPoland (1983). The Deluge has also found its way into video games. The video gameMount & Blade: With Fire & Sword (named after the first book ofSienkiewicz's trilogy) contains a quest called "The Deluge" that is based on the events of the actual Deluge.
During 'The Deluge', Commonwealth lost an estimated ⅓ of its population (proportionally higher losses than during World War II), and its status as a great power.
These treaties were a substantial victory for Sweden, but she was again verging on bankruptcy
freden i Oliva i maj 1660. För Frankrikes mångårige bundsförvant blef den utomordentligt gynnsam.
Fredsförhandlingarna togs med förnyad kraft och den 23 april 1660 slöts freden i Oliva mellan å ena sidan Sverige å andra Polen, Brandenburg och Österrike. Det var en bra fred för Sverige. Hotet från Polen var över och bara det var en god sak.
His sudden death in February 1660 gave his successor, Karl XI, the opportunity to sue for peacewhile terms were still favourable. The Treaty of Oliva (May 1660) recognised Hohenzollern sovereignty over Prussia in exchange for recognition of Swedish control over Livonia and Jan Kazimierz's abandonment of his claim to the Swedish throne.
Wbrew pozorom wynik drugiej wojny północnej był niekorzystny dla Szwecji. Pewne nabytki terytorialne kosztem Danii, zachowanie w innych przypadkach status quo ante bellum nie mogły przesłonić faktu, że nie udało się Szwedom dokończyć dzieła tworzenia nadbałtyckiego imperium, sen • Dominium Maris Baltici musiał się rozwiać, a siła ofensywna Szwecji została złamana . Dlatego też wynik wojny północnej w porównaniu z wynikien trzydziestoletniej należy uznać za cofnięcie się Szwecji z po mocarstwowej. Mimo że elektor brandenburski oddawał Pomorze, które miał przecier w ręku, to on właśnie był głównym triumfatorem w Oliwie. Udało mu sie bowiem osiągnąć w wojnie 1655–1660 największy sukces swego panowania zrzucenie zwierzchności polskiej w Prusach, natomiast Szwecji nie udało się usadowić na południowych wybrzeżach Bałtyku.
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