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In classicalpsychoanalysis, thedeath drive (German:Todestrieb) is an aspect oflibidinal energy that seeks "to lead organic life back into the inanimate state."[1] ForSigmund Freud, it "express[es] itself—though probably only in part—as adrive of destruction directed against the external world and other organisms",[2] for example, in the behaviour ofpredation. It complements thelife drive, which encompasses self-preservation and reproduction behaviours such as nutrition and sexuality. Both aspects of libido form the common basis of Freud'sdual drive theory.
The death drive is not only expressed through instinctiveaggression, such as hunting for nourishment, but also through pathological behaviour such asrepetition compulsion andself-destructiveness.[3][4][5]
Freud proposed the concept of the death and life drives in his workBeyond the Pleasure Principle in 1920. It was developed to solve problems arising from the distinction between thepleasure principle of theid and thereality principle of the ego, with which he was still unable to explain seemingly meaningless or even self-destructive phenomena likerecurring dreams of veterans that constantly remind of their war injuries. Freud also proposes that redirection of the death instinct outwards is the source of aggression.
The death drive forms an important part of Freud's psychoanalytic theory, being one of the two fundamental drives that influence behaviour. It is a controversial aspect of Freud's theory, with many later analysts modifying it or outright rejecting it. Later analysts who have accepted the concept have created the concept of mortido and destrudo to provide an analogous term to Eros'slibido.
Three major terms are used to refer to the same Freudian concept: death drive, death instinct, andThanatos.
Death drive and death instinct both originate from varying translations of the German wordsInstinkt (instinct) andTrieb (drive). While Freud typically used the word Trieb when referring to the death drive,[7] theStandard Edition of Freud uses the word "instinct" for both Instinkt and Trieb.[7][note 1] Death instinct and death drive are typically synonymous.
The termThanatos was coined byWilhelm Stekel and its use was advocated byPaul Federn.[9] The term is never found in Freud's written works, but according to biographer Ernest Jones, Freud occasionally used the term in conversation when referring to the death drive.[10][9] The term is a reference to the personification of death from Greek myth,Thanatos, who is used to provide an opposite to the mythological term used to refer to the life drive,Eros.[9][5] Thanatos is also typically synonymous with death drive.
Freud arrived at the concept of the death instinct through these observations ofrepetition compulsion—the tendency of people who have undergone traumatic events to return to their painful experience repeatedly, often in dreams, and children's play.[11] He found the phenomenon of people involuntarily subjecting themselves to disturbing stimuli would be irreconcilable with thepleasure principle (the idea that the mind works to lessen tension within it).[12] While maintaining his theory of the pleasure principle and its regulation by thereality principle, Freud introduced the concept of the death instinct in his 1920 workBeyond the Pleasure Principle. He citesSabina Spielrein and her paper "Destruction as the Cause of Coming into Being" as a predecessor for his line of thinking.[13] In this work, Freud claims that repetition compulsion has a highly instinctual characteristic and gives the appearance of a "daemonic force at work".[14][12] From there, he argues that another instinct beside the pleasure principle must be responsible for the phenomena.[12] He claims that all instincts are "an urge inherent in organic life to restore an earlier state of things", and since the earliest state instinct could restore in the state preceding life itself, there must be an instinct that aims to return oneself into inorganic non-existence.[11][12] He claims that this instinct is used to provide mastery over unpleasant experiences by repeating them in play and dreams.[12] InThe Ego and the Id, he states that the death instinct forms a duality within the id alongside Eros.[15] Freud also predicated his notion of the death drive on the "nirvana principle": the fundamental tendency to aim toward reducing all instinctual tension to zero, that is, non-existence.[12][14][note 2]
Freud originally held that aggressive impulses could be variously explained by both the sexual and self-preservative instincts.[16] InBeyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud moves away from this belief by claiming that the two primary instincts are the life instinctEros (which incorporates both the sexual and self-preservative instincts), and the death instinct.[16] Freud believed that the death instinct was aimed toward the self, and that aggression (or the "aggressive instinct") was the death instinct reoriented at the outside world.[17][18]
The death instinct can be directed outwards as aggression when the ego is disturbed and engages in adefense mechanism such asprojection. This is tempered by thesuper-ego, which redirects that aggression onto theego itself and creates thefeeling of guilt.[19][20] In childhood, frustration of desires by parents causes aggression towards them, and then results inintrojection andidentification of this aspect into the super-ego during its formation.[19] To summarize, the death instinct (as a part of theid, like the Eros) is originally oriented at the self, then when oriented outwards as aggression, it isrepressed as the super-ego develops, which results in the death instinct being again oriented inwards at the ego.
...civilization is a process in the service of Eros, whose purpose is to combine single human individuals, and after that families, then races, peoples and nations, into one great unity, the unity of mankind... But man’s natural aggressive instinct, the hostility of each against all and of all against each, opposes this programme of civilization. This aggressive instinct is the derivative and the main representative of the death instinct which we have found alongside Eros and which shares world-dominion with it. And now, I think, the meaning of the evolution of civilization is no longer obscure to us. It must present the struggle between Eros and Death, between the instinct of life arid the instinct of destruction, as it works itself out in the human species.
— Sigmund Freud,Civilization and Its Discontents, (SE, XXI.122)
InCivilization and Its Discontents, Freud discusses the importance of instincts to the structure of civilization, with civilization performing a moderating role which reorients aggression to the outside world onto the self.[21] Freud believed that aggression stemming from the death instinct must be repressed viareaction formation in order for civilization to exist.[18][21] In the process of civilization, Freud places the death instinct behind Eros in visibility and importance, stating it is only detected when "alloyed with Eros".[22][23]
From a philosophical perspective, the death drive may be viewed in relation to the work of the German philosopherArthur Schopenhauer. InThe World as Will and Representation, he postulates that all exists by a metaphysical "will" (more clearly, awill to live), and that pleasure affirms this will.[24] Schopenhauer'spessimism led him to believe that the affirmation of the "will" was a negative and immoral thing, due to his belief of life producing more suffering than happiness. The death drive would seem to manifest as a natural and psychological negation of the "will".
Freud was well aware of such possible linkages. In a letter of 1919, he wrote that regarding "the theme of death, [that I] have stumbled onto an odd idea via the drives and must now read all sorts of things that belong to it, for instance Schopenhauer".[25]Ernest Jones (who like many analysts was not convinced of the need for the death drive, over and above an instinct of aggression) considered that "Freud seemed to have landed in the position of Schopenhauer, who taught that 'death is the goal of life'".[26]
However, as Freud put it to the imagined auditors of hisNew Introductory Lectures (1932), "You may perhaps shrug your shoulders and say: "That isn't natural science, it's Schopenhauer's philosophy!" But, ladies and gentlemen, why should not a bold thinker have guessed something that is afterwards confirmed by sober and painstaking detailed research?"[27] He then went on to add that "what we are saying is not even genuine Schopenhauer....we are not overlooking the fact that there is life as well as death. We recognise two basic instincts and give each of them its own aim".[28]
The concept of the death drive has been controversial. Freud acknowledged this, saying "the assumption of the existence of an instinct of death or destruction has met with resistance even in analytic circles".[29]Ernest Jones would comment ofBeyond the Pleasure Principle that the book not only "displayed a boldness of speculation that was unique in all his writings" but was "further noteworthy in being the only one of Freud's which has received little acceptance on the part of his followers".[30]Salman Akhtar writes in theComprehensive Dictionary of Psychoanalysis that "with the exception ofMelanie Klein, her followers, andKurt Eissler, most subsequent analysts laid the postulate of death instinct to rest."[31]
Otto Fenichel in his compendious survey of the first Freudian half-century concluded that "the facts on which Freud based his concept of a death instinct in no way necessitate the assumption ... of a genuine self-destructive instinct".[32]Heinz Hartmann set the tone forego psychology when he "chose to ... do without 'Freud's other, mainly biologically oriented set of hypotheses of the "life" and "death instincts"'".[33] In theobject relations theory, among the independent group, the most common repudiation was the loathsome notion of the death instinct'.[34]
Melanie Klein and her immediate followers considered that "the infant is exposed from birth to the anxiety stirred up by the inborn polarity of instincts—the immediate conflict between the life instinct and the death instinct";[4] and her followers built much of their theory of early childhood around the outward deflection of the latter. The former vice-president of theInternational Psychoanalytical Association,Hanna Segal, writes "This deflection of the death instinct, described by Freud, in Melanie Klein's view consists partly of a projection, partly of the conversion of the death instinct into aggression".[4]
French psychoanalystJacques Lacan castigated the "refusal to accept this culminating point of Freud's doctrine ... by those who conduct their analysis on the basis of a conception of theego ... that death instinct whose enigma Freud propounded for us at the height of his experience".[35] Characteristically, Lacan stressed the linguistic aspects of the death drive: "the symbol is substituted for death in order to take possession of the first swelling of life .... There is therefore no further need to have recourse to the outworn notion of primordial masochism in order to understand the reason for the repetitive games in ... hisFort! and in hisDa!."[36]
Eric Berne too would proudly proclaim that he, "besides having repeated and confirmed the conventional observations of Freud, also believes right down the line with him concerning the death instinct, and the pervasiveness of therepetition compulsion".[3]
Freud's conceptual opposition of death and Eros drives in the human psyche was applied by Walter A. Davis inDeracination: Historicity, Hiroshima, and the Tragic Imperative[37] andDeath's Dream Kingdom: The American Psyche since 9/11.[38] Davis described social reactions to both Hiroshima and 9/11 from the Freudian viewpoint of the death force. Unless they consciously take responsibility for the damage of those reactions, Davis claims that Americans will repeat them.
The termsmortido anddestrudo (though both rejected by Freud),[39] formed analogously tolibido and refer to the energy of thedeath instinct.[40] In the 21st century, their use among Freudian psychoanalysts has been waning, but still designate destructive energy.[41][40] The importance of integrating mortido into an individual's life, as opposed tosplitting it off and disowning it, has been taken up by figures likeRobert Bly in the men's movement.[42]
Paul Federn used the termmortido for the new energy source,[43] and has generally been followed in that by other analytic writers.[44] His disciple and collaborator Weiss, however, chose destrudo, which was later taken up byCharles Brenner.[45]
Mortido has also been applied in contemporary expositions of theKabbalah.[46]
Literary criticism has been almost more prepared thanpsychoanalysis to make at least metaphorical use of the term 'Destrudo'. Artistic images were seen byJoseph Campbell in terms of "incestuous 'libido' and patricidal 'destrudo'";[47] while literary descriptions of the conflict between destrudo and libido[48] are still fairly widespread in the 21st century.[49]
Mortido was introduced by Freud's pupilPaul Federn to cover the psychic energy of the death instinct, something left open by Freud himself:[50] Providing what he saw as clinical proof of the reality of the death instinct in 1930, Federn reported on the self-destructive tendencies of severely melancholic patients as evidence of what he would later call inwardly-directed mortido.[51]
Destrudo is a term introduced by Italian psychoanalystEdoardo Weiss in 1935 to denote the energy of the death instinct, on the analogy of libido[52][53]—and thus to cover the energy of the destructiveimpulse in Freudian psychology.
Destrudo is the opposite of libido—the urge to create, an energy that arises from the Eros (or "life") drive—and is the urge to destroy arising fromThanatos (death), and thus an aspect of what Sigmund Freud termed "the aggressive instincts, whose aim is destruction".[54]
Weiss related aggression/destrudo tosecondary narcissism, something generally only described in terms of the libido turning towards the self.[55]
Eric Berne, who was a pupil of Federn's, made extensive use of the termmortido in his pre-transactional analysis study,The Mind in Action (1947). As he wrote in the foreword to the third edition of 1967, "the historical events of the last thirty years...become much clearer by introducing Paul Federn's concept of mortido".[56]
Berne saw mortido as activating such forces as hate and cruelty, blinding anger and social hostilities;[57] and considered that inwardly directed mortido underlay the phenomena ofguilt and self-punishment, as well as their clinical exacerbations in the form ofdepression or melancholia.[58]
Berne saw sexual acts as gratifying mortido at the same time as libido; and recognised that on occasion the former becomes more important sexually than the latter, as insadomasochism and destructive emotional relationships.[59]
Berne's concern with the role of mortido in individuals and groups, social formations and nations, arguably continued throughout all his later writings.[60]
Jean Laplanche has explored repeatedly the question of mortido,[61] and of how far a distinctive instinct of destruction can be identified in parallel to the forces of libido.[62]
It is a little odd that Freud himself never, except in conversation, used for the death instinct the termThanatos, one which has become so popular since. At first he used the terms "death instinct" and "destructive instinct" indiscriminately, alternating between them, but in his discussion with Einstein about war he made the distinction that the former is directed against the self and the latter, derived from it, is directed outward. Stekel had in 1909 used the word Thanatos to signify a death-wish, but it was Federn who introduced it in the present context.
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