The nameDatura originates from theHindi and Sanskrit words for "thorn-apple," with historical and cultural significance inAyurveda andHinduism, while the American term "jimsonweed" derives from its prevalence inJamestown, Virginia, where it was called "Jamestown-Weed."Datura species are herbaceous annual or short-lived perennial plants up to 2 meters tall with trumpet-shaped flowers and spiny fruit capsules, historically used intraditional medicine, especially inIndia, where they hold cultural and ritual significance.Datura species classification is complex due to high variability and overlapping traits amongspecies, with many "new species" later reclassified as local varieties or subspecies; most species are native toMexico, though some have disputed native ranges outside theAmericas, and the genus is closely related toBrugmansia and the recently establishedTrompettia.
Due to their effects and symptoms,Datura species have occasionally been used not only as poisons, but also ashallucinogens by various groups throughout history.[4][5] Traditionally, their psychoactive administration has often been associated withwitchcraft andsorcery or similar practices in many cultures, including theWestern world.[5][6][7] Certain commonDatura species have also been usedritualistically asentheogens by someNative American groups.[8][9]
Thegeneric nameDatura is taken fromHindi धतूराdhatūra "thorn-apple",[11] ultimately fromSanskrit धत्तूरdhattūra "white thorn-apple" (referring toDatura metel of Asia).[12] In theAyurvedic textSushruta Samhita, different species ofDatura are also referred to askanaka andunmatta.[12]Dhatura is offered toShiva inHinduism. Record of this name in English dates back to 1662.[13]Nathaniel Hawthorne refers to one type inThe Scarlet Letter as "apple-Peru". In Mexico, its common name istoloache (also spelledtolguacha), which derives from theNahuatltolohuaxihuitl, meaning "the plant with the nodding head" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules ofDatura species belonging to sectionDutra of the genus).
The term "Jimsonweed" is said to come from theAmerican colonyJamestown. In Jamestown datura was common,[14] and was referred to as "Jamestown-Weed" by oneVirginian, Robert Beverley.[15] This then turned into the term "Jimsonweed".
Datura species areherbaceous, leafyannuals and short-livedperennials, which can reach up to 2 m in height. Theleaves are alternate, 10–20 cm long, and 5–18 cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. Theflowers are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those ofBrugmansia), trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long, and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth; colours vary from white to yellow and pale purple. Thefruit is a spinycapsule, 4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerousseeds. The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields, and even wasteland locations.
Datura belongs to the classic "witches' weeds", along withdeadly nightshade,henbane, andmandrake. All parts of the plants are toxic, and the genus has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an essential ingredient of magical ointments,potions, and witches' brews, most notablyDatura stramonium.[16][17]
In India,D. metel has long been regarded as a poison andaphrodisiac, having been used inAyurveda as a medicine since ancient times. It features in rituals and prayers to Shiva and also inGanesh Chaturthi, a festival devoted to the deityGanesha.[18] Thelarvae of someLepidoptera (butterfly andmoth) species, includingHypercompe indecisa, eat someDatura species. It has been observed that while insects may prefer to feed onDatura leaves, other animals such ascows will generally avoid consuming them.
ClassifyingDatura as to its species is difficult, and the descriptions of new species often are accepted prematurely. Later, these "new species" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years. Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such asD. wrightii andD. inoxia, are very similar in appearance, and the variation within a species can be extreme. For example,Datura species can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location. The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as an adult human of average height, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle high, with tiny flowers and a few miniature leaves.[16]Datura species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions. Most species are native to Mexico, which is considered the center of origin of the genus. Several species are considered to have extra-American native ranges:D. ferox (native to China),D. metel (native to India and Southeast Asia), andD. leichardthii (native to Australia), however these may be early introductions from Central America.[19]
A group of South American species formerly placed in the genusDatura are now placed in the distinct genusBrugmansia[20] (Brugmansia differs fromDatura in that it is woody (the species beingshrubs or smalltrees) and hasindehiscent fruits.) The solanaceous tribeDatureae, to whichDatura andBrugmansia belong, has recently acquired a new, monotypic genusTrompettiaJ. Dupin, featuring the speciesTrompettia cardenasiana, which had hitherto been misclassified as belonging to the genusIochroma.
Datura specialists Ulrike Preissel and Hans-Georg Preissel accept only 9 species ofDatura,[16] but Kew's Plants of the World Online currently lists the following 14 (out of which the current edition of The Plant List does not listD. arenicola,D. lanosa, andD. pruinosa as accepted spp.):
Of the above,D. leichhardtii is close enough toD. pruinosa to merit demotion to a subspecies and likewiseD. ferox andD. quercifolia are close enough in morphology to merit being subsumed in a single species. Furthermore, the Australian provenance ofD. leichhardtii, the Chinese provenance ofD. ferox, and the Afro-Asiatic provenance ofD. metel have been cast into serious doubt, with the three species being almost certainly post-Columbian introductions to the regions to which they were originally thought native.[21]
The case ofD. metel is unique in that not only is the plant not a true species at all, but an assemblage of ancientpre-Columbian cultivars created fromD. innoxia in the Greater Antilles, but evidence is mounting that it was introduced to the Indian subcontinent no later than the second century CE – whether by natural or human agency is, as yet, unknown – making it one of the most ancient plant introductions (if not the most ancient) from theNew World to theOld World (seeColumbian Exchange).[21][18][22]
D. arenicola is a remarkable new species, described only in 2013, of very restricted range, and so distinctive as to have merited the creation for it of the new sectionDiscola [not to be confused with the species nameD. discolor] within the genus. The specific namearenicola means "loving (i.e. "thriving in")sand".[23]
Datura species are usually sown annually from the seed produced in the spinycapsules, but, with care, the tuberous-rootedperennial species may be overwintered. Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers. As a rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry. When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive. In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage. The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so anaerobic organic enrichment such as anaerobically composted organic matter or manure, should be avoided.[16]
AllDatura plants containtropane alkaloids such as scopolamine and atropine, primarily in their seeds and flowers, as well as the roots of certain species such asD. wrightii. Because of the presence of these substances,Datura has been used for centuries in some cultures as apoison.[16][24][4] A given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions. These variations makeDatura exceptionally hazardous as a drug. Since datura directly causes the effects of anticholinergic syndrome, the symptoms of its toxicity are often cited by the traditional mnemonic: "Blind as a bat, mad as a hatter, red as a beet, hot as a hare, dry as a bone, the bowel and bladder lose their tone, and the heart runs alone".[25]Datura, as well as long-term psychoactive/toxic usage of otheranticholinergic drugs, also appear to significantly increase the risk of developingdementia.[26][27]
In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge ofDatura was critical to minimize harm.[16] Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting or smokingDatura.[28] For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media reported stories ofadolescents and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingestingDatura.[29][30] Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported as well.[31] Although most poisonings occur with more common species ofDatura such asD. stramonium, several reports in the medical literature indicate deaths fromD. feroxintoxication.[32][33][34] Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning.[35][36]
D. inoxia with ripe, split-open fruit
In some parts ofEurope andIndia,Datura has been a popularpoison forsuicide andmurder.[37] From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories inAgra, India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingestingDatura.[16][38] A group calledThugs(practicers of thuggee) were reportedly devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled or poisoned their victims inrituals devoted to the Hindu goddessKali. They were alleged to employDatura in many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier.[39]
Datura toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption ofhoney produced by several wasp species, includingBrachygastra lecheguana, during theDatura blooming season. These semi-domesticatedhoney wasps apparently collectDatura nectar for honey production, which can lead to poisoning.[40]
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for a family of six who inadvertently ingestedDatura used as an ingredient in stew.[41]
In some places around the world, such as India due to the Drug & Cosmetic Act 1940 & Rule 1995, buying, selling, or cultivatingDatura plants is prohibited.[16][38] Solanaceous tribes with a similar chemistry (i.e. a similar tropane alkaloid content), include theHyoscyameae, containing such well-known toxic species asHyoscyamus niger andAtropa belladonna, the Solandreae containing the genusSolandra ("chalice vines") and theMandragoreae, named for the famousMandragora officinarum, most of which are considered traditional witches' herbs and poisons.
Datura is considered adeliriant. Due to the potent combination ofanticholinergic substances it contains,Daturaintoxication typically produces the effects ofanticholinergic delirium (usually involving a complete or relative inability to differentiatereality fromfantasy);bizarre thoughts,hyperthermia;tachycardia; bizarre, and possibly violent behavior; dry skin; dry mouth; illusions; and severemydriasis (dilated pupils) with resultant painfulphotophobia that can last several days.[42] Muscle stiffness,urinary retention, temporary paralysis,disrobing,emotional bluntness,dysphoria, andconfusion are often reported, and pronouncedamnesia is another commonly reported effect.[43][44] The psychoactive alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also both known for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations.[45][46] The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb. These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last two weeks or longer.[31][47][48]
Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, people with acuteDatura poisoning or intoxication are typically hospitalized.Gastric lavage and the administration ofactivated charcoal can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material, and the drugphysostigmine is used to reverse the effect of the poisons.Benzodiazepines can be given to calm the patient'sagitation, and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided. Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24 to 36 hours after ingestion of theDatura.[38][47]
InPharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs, Freye asserts, "Few substances have received as many severely negative recreational experience reports as hasDatura."[49] The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use ofDatura find their experiences extremely unpleasant ─ both mentally and often physically.[43] However, anthropologists have found that indigenous groups, with a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge ofDatura, have been known to useDatura spiritually (including theNavajo and especially theHavasupai).[50][51] Adequate knowledge ofDatura's properties is necessary to facilitate a safe experience.[16] The ancient inhabitants of what became central and southernCalifornia used to ingestDatura to "commune withdeities throughvisions".[52] TheSouthern Paiute believeDatura can help locate missing objects.[53] In ancient Mexico,Datura also played an important role in thereligion of the Aztecs and the practices of theirmedicine men andnecromancers.[54] It was reportedly used by the Aztecs forritual sacrifice and malevolent purposes as well.[55] In modern-dayMexico, someDatura species are still used for sorcery and otheroccult practices, mostly in the southern region ofVeracruz, specifically in the city ofCatemaco.[56][57] In Afghanistan, it was used by theMalang as a shamanic initiation rite and to contact the "other-world".[58]
Bernardino de Sahagún, in around 1569, called attention toDatura in these words: "It is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred. Those who eat it have visions of fearful things. Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink. This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected."[54]
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