In the late 1970s, theFrench Air Force andFrench Navy sought to replace and consolidate their existing fleets of aircraft. In order to reduce development costs and boost prospective sales, France entered into an arrangement with the UK, Germany, Italy and Spain to produce an agile multi-purpose "Future European Fighter Aircraft" (which would become theEurofighter Typhoon). Subsequent disagreements over workshare and differing requirements led France to pursue its own development programme. Dassault built atechnology demonstrator that first flew in July 1986 as part of an eight-year flight-test programme, paving the way for approval of the project.
The Rafale is distinct from other European fighters of its era in that it is almost entirely built by one country, France, involving most of France's majordefence contractors, such asDassault,Thales andSafran. Many of the aircraft's avionics and features, such asdirect voice input, theRBE2 AAactive electronically scanned array (AESA) radar and theoptronique secteur frontalinfra-red search and track (IRST) sensor, were domestically developed and produced for the Rafale programme. Originally scheduled to enter service in 1996, the Rafale suffered significant delays due to post-Cold War budget cuts and changes in priorities. There are three main variants: Rafale C single-seat land-based version, Rafale B twin-seat land-based version, and Rafale M single-seat carrier-based version.
In the mid-1970s, theFrench Air Force (Armée de l'Air) andFrench Navy (Marine Nationale) had separate requirements for a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service.[8] Because their requirements were similar, and to reduce cost, both services issued a common request for proposal.[9] In 1975, the country's Ministry of Aviation initiated studies for a new aircraft to complement the upcoming and smallerDassault Mirage 2000, with each aircraft optimized for differing roles.[10]
The Rafale aircraft development programme was the end product of efforts by various European countries for a common fighter aircraft. In 1979, Dassault-Breguet (later Dassault Aviation) joined theMBB/BAe "European Collaborative Fighter" project which was renamed the "European Combat Aircraft" (ECA).[11] The company contributed the aerodynamic layout of a prospective twin-engine, single-seat fighter; however, the project collapsed in 1981 due to differing operational requirements of each partner country.[12] In 1983, the "Future European Fighter Aircraft" (FEFA) programme was initiated, bringing together France, Italy, Spain, West Germany and the United Kingdom to jointly develop a new fighter, although the latter three had their own aircraft developments.[13] French officials envisioned a lightweight, multirole aircraft that—in addition to fulfilling both air force andnaval roles—it was believed, would be attractive on the export fighter market. This was in contrast to the British requirement for a heavy long-range interceptor. France also demanded a lead role, with the commensurate technical and industrial primacy, whereas the other countries were accepting of a more egalitarian programme structure.[14][N 1]
There was little common ground between France and the other members of this project, but by 1983, the five countries had agreed on a European Staff Target for a future fighter. Nevertheless, differences persisted, and so France withdrew from the multilateral talks in July 1985 to preserve the technological independence of its fighter aircraft industry. West Germany, the UK and Italy opted out and established a new European Fighter Aircraft (EFA) programme.[8] InTurin, on 2 August 1985, West Germany, the UK and Italy agreed to go ahead with the EFA, and confirmed that France, along with Spain, had chosen not to proceed as a member of the project.[16][17] Despite pressure from France, Spain rejoined the EFA project in early September 1985. The four-nation project eventually resulted in theEurofighter Typhoon's development.[18]
Rafale logo
In France, the government proceeded with its own programme. TheMinistry of Defence required an aircraft capable of air-to-air and air-to-ground,all-day and adverse weather operations. As France was the sole developer of the Rafale'sairframe,avionics,propulsion system andarmament, the resultant aircraft was to replace a multitude of aircraft in theFrench Armed Forces. The Rafale would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of specialised platforms, including theJaguar,Mirage F1C/CR/CT, Mirage 2000C/-5/N in the French Air Force, and theF-8P Crusader,Étendard IVP/M andSuper Étendard in French Naval Aviation.[8][19]
At the same time as the multinational talks were occurring, Dassault-Breguet had been busy designing itsAvion de Combat Experimental (ACX). During late 1978, prior to France's joining of the ECA, Dassault received contracts for the development of project ACT 92 (Avion de Combat Tactique, meaning "Tactical Combat Airplane"). The following year, the National Office for Aviation Studies and Research began studying the possible configurations of the new fighter under the codenameRapace ("Bird of Prey"). By March 1980, the number of configurations had been narrowed down to four, two of which had a combination ofcanards,delta wings and a singlevertical tail-fin.[12] The ACX project was given political impetus when the French government awarded a contract for two (later reduced to one) technology demonstrator aircraft on 13 April 1983. The government and industry would each provide half of the development cost, with first flight to take place in 1986.[20] At the time, there was no guarantee that the effort would result in a full-scale development programme, and the aircraft remained a purely "proof-of concept" test vehicle. In an effort to harmonize design specifics with the requirements of other countries while collaboration talks were being held, Dassault sized the ACX aircraft in the 9.5 tonne range. After France decided to pull out of the multilateral talks, designers focused on a more compact size, as specified by the Air Force.[21] The ACX programmed was renamedRafale ("squall") in April 1985.[22]
The Dassault Rafale A technology demonstrator
Construction of the Rafale A (ACX) technology demonstrator started in 1984. It had a length of 15.8 m (52 ft), a wingspan of 11 m (36 ft), and a 9.5 t (21,000 lb) empty weight. The austere aircraft lacked in major subsystems, and had the minimal cockpit systems and afly-by-wireflight control system for the validation of the design's basic airframe-engine layout. The company desired to use the Rafale A to continue the company approach of risk reduction through incremental improvement and to test the aerodynamically unstable delta wing-canard configuration.[23] The aircraft was Dassault's 92nd prototype in 40 years.[24] At the time of its construction, the aircraft had two 68.8 kN (15,500 lbf)General Electric F404 engines that were then in service with the F/A-18 Hornet, pending the availability of theSnecma M88turbofan engines.[25][26] It was rolled out in December 1985 atSaint-Cloud, and on 4 July 1986, made its first flight from the company's Istres test facility in southern France, piloted by Guy Mitaux-Maurouard. During the one-hour flight, the aircraft reached an altitude of 11,000 m (36,000 ft) and a speed of Mach 1.3.[27] The aircraft participated in the Farnborough air show the following month.
The aircraft participated in an intensiveflight test programme that saw it simulate air force and naval operations. The test vehicle flew approaches to the carrierClemenceau, and also tested for coordination withFoch. By 1987, the aircraft had been flown by Air Force, Navy and CEV test pilots. Its port-side F404 engine was replaced with the 72.9 kN (16,400 lbf) M88 in early 1990,[25] and the aircraft flew under the updated powerplant configuration in May 1990.[8][28] The aircraft thereafter attained a speed of Mach 1.4 without the use ofengine reheat, thereby demonstrating supercruise.[29] The Rafale A was used until January 1994, and was retired after 867 sorties.[30]
The early successful demonstration programme increased French industry and government confidence in the viability of a full-scale development programme for the Rafale. In June 1987, French prime ministerJacques Chirac declared that the government would proceed with the project. A contract for four pre-production aircraft (one Rafale C, two Rafale Ms and one Rafale B) was awarded on 21 April 1988 for a test and validation programme.[31][28] There was nevertheless government uncertainty in the programme, as it was expected to cost some Ffr120 billion (1988 francs) in total development and procurement costs.[32][33] Prime minister Michel Rocard was concerned about the state of the project and the failure of the previous government to secure cooperation with other countries, but stated that, "It is inconceivable that we should not be able to build the weapons necessary for our independence".[34] France had earlier entered unsuccessful talks with Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway, about the possible collaboration on the project.[35]
To meet the various roles expected of the new aircraft, the Air Force required two variants: the single-seat Rafale C (chasseur, meaning "fighter") and the Rafale B (biplace, "two-seater"). Its first flight on 19 May 1991 occurred at the company's test facility in Istres. This signalled the start of a test programme which primarily aimed to test the M88-2 engines,man-machine interface and weapons, and expand theflight envelope.[36] Due to budgetary constraints, the second single-seat prototype was never built.[37] The aircraft differed significantly from the Rafale A demonstrator. Although superficially similar to the heavier test vehicle, the aircraft was smaller, with a length of 15.3 m (50 ft) and a wingspan of 10.9 m (36 ft).[38] It was less detectable by radar due to the canopy being gold-plated and the addition of radar-absorbent materials; Dassault had also removed the dedicated airbrake.[39] The sole Rafale B two-seat preproduction aircraft, B01, made its first flight on 30 April 1993, and served as a platform for testing of weapons and fire-control systems, including the RBE2 radar and the SPECTRA electronic warfare suite.[39]
The first of two Rafale M (maritime, "naval") prototypes, M01, made its maiden flight on 12 December 1991, followed by the second on 8 November 1993.[36] These aircraft differed from the air force variants in having reinforced structure to allow the aircraft to operate aboard ships, and provision for a tail hook and an in-built ladder, which increased the weight of the Rafale M by 500 kg (1,100 lb) over other production variants.[40] Since France has no land-based catapult test facility, catapult trials were carried out in mid-1992 and early 1993 at theUnited States Navy facility atNAS Lakehurst,New Jersey. The aircraft then carried out shipboard trials aboardFoch in April 1993.[41] The aircraft conducted landings and launches from the nuclear-powered aircraft carrierCharles de Gaulle in July 1999. Testing showed that the aircraft had the ability to land with significant loads of unexpended ordnance.[41]
The Rafale B was initially expected to be just a trainer, but theGulf War showed that a second crew member was invaluable on strike andreconnaissance missions. The Air Force therefore switched its preferences towards the two-seater, and planned that the variant would constitute 60 percent of the Rafale fleet.[42] The service originally planned to order 250 Rafales, later reduced to 234 aircraft, 95 "C" and 139 "B" models",[43] and then to 212 aircraft.[42] The Navy originally planned to order 86 Rafales, which was reduced to 60 by to budget cuts,[44][42] 25 M single-seaters and 35 two-seat Ns.[43] The two-seater was later cancelled.
The ACX and subsequent production Rafale was designed in a "virtual" format. Dassault used the experience and technical expertise of its sister companyDassault Systèmes, which had invented theCATIA (Computer Aided Three-dimensional Interactive Application) system, a three-dimensionalcomputer-aided design andcomputer-aided manufacture (CAD/CAM)software suite that became standard across the industry.[45] CATIA enabled digitization and efficiency improvements throughout the programme, as it implemented recently developed processes such asdigital mockup andproduct data management (PDM). Engineers worked directly with computers in generating 3D models of the aircraft, and took advantage of the design software in facilitating machine-tool preparation. The system consisted of 15GB databases of each of the Rafale's components, assisting with various aspects of the design, manufacture and through-life support.[45] The computer-aided arrangement also simplified routine maintenance.
Production of the first aircraft series formally started in December 1992, but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic uncertainty, and resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of Defence and Dassault agreed on a 48-aircraft (28 firm and 20 options) production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007.[42] A further order of 59 Rafale F3s was announced in December 2004.[46] In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180.[47]
The Rafale is manufactured almost entirely in France, except for some imported non-sensitive components.[48] Different components are produced in various plants across the country, including the fuselage in Paris, wings in Martignas, and fins in Biarritz, with final assembly taking place in Merignac near Bordeaux.[49] Dassault carries out 60% of the work, its partnerThales 25%, and its other partnerSafran 15%.[50] The three companies rely on a network of 500 subcontractors, many of which aresmall and medium enterprises, providing work for 7,000 direct and indirect employees.[48] As of 2012[update], each fighter took 24 months to manufacture, with an annual production rate of eleven aircraft.[48]The Rafale was originally planned to enter service in 1995. The aircraft's development proceeded on time, on budget, and without major difficulties. However, the project needed to compete with other defense acquisition programmes for a dwindling national defense budget.[38] This occurred in a political environment in which the chief security threat, the Soviet Union, no longer existed. The French government consequently reduced Rafale orders, which Dassault and other companies involved claimed impeded production management and led to higher costs, and delayed the entry of the aircraft into service.[51][52] At one stage, French naval authorities investigated the possibility of acquiring used F/A-18s to replace the obsolete F-8 for its carriers,[53] but the French government intended an all-Rafale fleet, and did not go ahead with the plan. Deliveries of the Rafale M were subsequently given a high priority to replace the Navy's aged F-8 fighters. In the words of a naval official, "Although we lost the battle for the F/A-18s, I guess you could say that we had at least some success by 'persuading' the government to give us initial delivery priority".[38] The first production Rafale B took its first flight on 24 November 1998,[54] followed by the first Rafale M for the French Navy on 7 July 1999.[55]
In March 2025, Dassault Aviation announced an increase in production in anticipation of more orders from France and other countries. The company's chief executive, Eric Trappier, said they plan to deliver three aircraft per month in 2025, increasing to four per month from 2028 to 2029.[56]
On 5 June 2025, Dassault Aviation announced its partnership with India'sTata Advanced Systems (TASL) for the production of Rafale'sfuselage in India after signing four Production Transfer Agreements. The manufacturing will be taken up in TASL's Hyderabad facility. The first fuselage will roll out fromfiscal year of 2028 with a production rate of two units per month. This will be the first time the Rafale's fuselage is manufactured outside of France.[57][58][59] Since earlier, five different parts of Rafale is being manufactured byDassault Reliance Aerospace Limited (DRAL) inNagpur, India.[60]
The Rafale has been designed with an open software architecture that facilitates straightforward upgrades. Dassault and its industry partners have therefore undertaken continuous tests and development primarily aimed at progressively improving the aircraft's sensors and avionics, and to allow additional armament integration. In 2011, upgrades under consideration included a software radio and satellite link, a new laser-targeting pod, smaller bombs and enhancements to the aircraft's data-fusion capacity.[61] In July 2012, fleetwide upgrades of the Rafale's battlefield communications and interoperability capabilities commenced.[62][63]
At one stage, French officials were reportedly considering equipping the Rafale to launchminiaturised satellites.[64]
In January 2014, the defence ministry announced that funds had been allocated towards the development of the F3R standard. The standard includes the integration of the Meteor BVR missile, among other weapons and software updates.[65][66] The standard was validated in 2018.[67]
Development work started on the F4 standard in 2019.[68] The design received radar and sensor upgrades that facilitate the detection of airborne stealth targets at long range, as well as improved capabilities in the helmet-mounted display. With improved communications equipment, it is also more effective in network-centric warfare. Flight tests were conducted starting in 2021 and the first F4-standard aircraft was delivered in 2023.[68][69] Previous aircraft will be upgraded to the standard, with a further 30 aircraft to be ordered in 2023.[68]
The total programme cost, as of FY2013, was around €45.9 billion,[70] which translated to a unit programme cost of approximately €160.5 million. This figure takes in account improved hardware of the F3 standard, and which includes development costs over a period of 40 years, including inflation.[71] The unitflyaway price as of 2010[update] was €101.1 million for the F3+ version.[72]
The F5 standard will have more powerful engines, carry the ASN4G hypersonic nuclear missile, RBE2 XG radar, improved survivability and data links, and will be accompanied by an unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) weighing more than ten metric tons (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons).[73][74][75]
The Rafale is planned to be the French Air and Space Force's primary combat aircraft until at least 2040.[76] In 2018, Dassault announced the successor to the Rafale as theNew Generation Fighter. This fighter aircraft, under development byDassault Aviation andAirbus Defence and Space, is to replace France's Rafale, Germany's Eurofighter Typhoon, and Spain's F/A-18 Hornet in the 2030–2040 timeframe.[77]
The Rafale was developed as a modern jet fighter with a very high level of agility; Dassault chose to combine a delta wing withactive close-coupled canard to maximize maneuverability. The aircraft is capable of withstanding from −3.6g to 9g (10.5g on Rafale solo display and a maximum of 11g can be reached in case of emergency[78][79]). The Rafale is anaerodynamically unstable aircraft and usesdigital fly-by-wire flight controls to artificially enforce and maintain stability.[79][N 2] The aircraft's canards also act to reduce the minimum landing speed to 115knots (213 km/h; 132 mph); while in flight, airspeeds as low as 15 knots (28 km/h; 17 mph) have been observed during training missions.[79] According to simulations by Dassault, the Rafale has sufficient low speed performance to operate fromSTOBAR-configured aircraft carriers, and can take off using a ski-jump with no modifications.[81]
The Rafale M features a greatly reinforcedundercarriage to cope with the additional stresses of naval landings, anarrestor hook, and "jump strut" nosewheel, which only extends during short takeoffs, includingcatapult launches.[36] It also features a built-in ladder, carrier-basedmicrowave landing system, and the new fin-tip Telemir system for syncing theinertial navigation system to external equipment.[82] Altogether, the naval modifications of the Rafale M increase its weight by 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) compared to other variants.[41] The Rafale M retains about 95 percentcommonality with Air Force variants including,[83] although unusual for carrier-based aircraft, being unable to fold its multi-spar wings to reduce storage space. The size constraints were offset by the introduction ofCharles de Gaulle, France's firstnuclear-powered carrier, which was considerably larger than previous carriers,Foch andClemenceau.[82]
Although not a full-aspectstealth aircraft, the cost of which was viewed as unacceptably excessive, the Rafale was designed for a reducedradar cross-section (RCS) andinfrared signature.[84][85] In order to reduce the RCS, changes from the initial technology demonstrator include a reduction in the size of the tail-fin, fuselage reshaping, repositioning of the engineair inlets underneath the aircraft's wing, and the extensive use ofcomposite materials andserrated patterns for the construction of the trailing edges of the wings and canards.[76][84] Seventy percent of the Rafale's surface area is composite.[86] Many of the features designed to reduce the Rafale's visibility to threats remain classified.[80]
The Rafale'sglass cockpit was designed around the principle ofdata fusion—a central computer selects and prioritises information to display to pilots for simpler command and control.[87] For displaying information gathered from a range of sensors across the aircraft, the cockpit features a wide-angle holographichead-up display (HUD) system, two head-downflat-panel colourmulti-function displays (MFDs) as well as a centralcollimated display. These displays have been strategically placed to minimise pilot distraction from the external environment.[88] Some displays feature atouch interface for ease ofhuman–computer interaction (HCI).[89] Ahead-mounted display (HMD) remains to be integrated to take full advantage of its MICA missiles.[90][91][92] The cockpit is fully compatible withnight vision goggles (NVG).[90] The primary flight controls are arranged in ahands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS)-compatible configuration, with a right-handedside-stick controller and a left-handed throttle.[90] The seat is inclined rearwards at an angle of 29° to improveg-force tolerance during manoeuvring and to provide a less restricted external pilot view.[93]
Forward section of Rafale on display at theParis Air Show, 2005
Great emphasis has been placed on pilot workload minimisation across all operations.[80] Among the features of the highly digitised cockpit is an integrateddirect voice input (DVI) system, allowing a range of aircraft functions to be controlled by spoken voice commands, simplifying the pilot's access to many of the controls.[90] For safety reasons, generally DVI is deliberately not employed for safety-critical elements of the aircraft's operation, such as the final release of weapons.[94]
In the area oflife support, the Rafale is fitted with aMartin-Baker Mark 16F "zero-zero"ejection seat, capable of operation at zero speed and zero altitude. An on-boardoxygen generating system, developed byAir Liquide, eliminates the need to carry bulky oxygen canisters.[95] The Rafale's flight computer has been programmed to counteract pilot disorientation and to employ automatic recovery of the aircraft during negative flight conditions. Theauto-pilot andautothrottle controls are also integrated, and are activated by switches located on the primary flight controls.[90] An intelligentflight suit worn by the pilot is automatically controlled by the aircraft to counteract in response to calculated g-forces.[96]
The Rafale core avionics systems employ anintegrated modular avionics (IMA), called MDPU (modular data processing unit). This architecture hosts all the main aircraft functions such as theflight management system, data fusion,fire control, and the man-machine interface.[80][N 3] The total value of the radar, electronic communications and self-protection equipment is about 30 percent of the cost of the entire aircraft.[97] The IMA has since been installed upon several upgraded Mirage 2000 fighters,[98] and incorporated into the civilian airliner, theAirbus A380.[99] According to Dassault, the IMA greatly assists combat operations via data fusion, the continuous integration and analysis of the various sensor systems throughout the aircraft, and has been designed for the incorporation of new systems and avionics throughout the Rafale's service life.[80]
The Rafale features an integrateddefensive-aids system namedSPECTRA, which protects the aircraft against airborne and ground threats, developed as a joint venture between Thales andMBDA.[100] Various methods of detection,jamming, anddecoying have been incorporated, and the system has been designed to be highly reprogrammable for addressing new threats and incorporating additional sub-systems in the future.[101][N 4] Operations over Libya were greatly assisted by SPECTRA, allowing Rafales to perform missions independently from the support of dedicatedSuppression of Enemy Air Defences (SEAD) platforms.[102]
The Rafale's ground attack capability is heavily reliant upon sensory targeting pods,[103] such asThales Optronics's Reco New Generation/Areos reconnaissance pod andDamocles electro-optical/laserdesignation pod.[97] Together, these systems provide targeting information, enable tactical reconnaissance missions, and are integrated with the Rafale's IMA architecture to provide analysed data feeds to friendly units and ground stations, as well as to the pilot.[104] Damocles provides targeting information to the various armaments carried by the Rafale and is directly integrated with the Rafale'sVHF/UHF secure radio to communicate target information with other aircraft. It also performs other key functions such as aerial optical surveillance and is integrated with the navigation system as aFLIR.[104]
The Damocles designation pod was described as "lacking competitiveness" when compared to rivals such as the Sniper andLITENING pods;[105] so work began on an upgraded pod, designated Damocles XF, with additional sensors and added ability to transmit live video feeds.[106] A new Thales targeting pod, the Talios, was officially unveiled at the 2014 Farnborough Air Show[107] and is expected to be integrated on the Rafale by 2018.[108] Thales' Areos reconnaissance pod is an all-weather, night-and-day-capable reconnaissance system employed on the Rafale, and provides a significantly improved reconnaissance capability over preceding platforms.[109][N 5] Areos has been designed to perform reconnaissance under various mission profiles and condition, using multiple day/night sensors and its own independent communications datalinks.[104]
The Rafale was first outfitted with the ThalesRBE2passive electronically scanned multi-mode radar. Thales claims to have achieved increased levels of situational awareness as compared to earlier aircraft through the earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for close combat and long-range interception, as well as real-time generation of three-dimensional maps forterrain-following and the real-time generation ofhigh resolution ground maps for navigation and targeting.[110] In early 1994, it was reported that technical difficulties with the radar had delayed the Rafale's development by six months.[85] In September 2006,Flight International reported the Rafale's unit cost had significantly increased due to additional development work to improve the RBE2's detection range.[111]
TheRBE2 AAactive electronically scanned array (AESA) radar now replaces the previous passively scanned RBE2. The RBE2 AA is reported to deliver a greater detection range of 200 km,[112] improved reliability and reduced maintenance demands over the preceding radar.[113] A Rafale demonstrator began test flights in 2002 and has totaled 100 flight hours as of December 2011[update]. By December 2009, production of the pre-series RBE2 AA radars was underway.[109] In early October 2012, the first Rafale equipped with an RBE2 AA radar arrived at Mont-de-Marsan Air Base for operational service (the development was described by Thales and Dassault as "on time and on budget").[113] By early 2014, the first Air Force front-line squadron were supposed to receive Rafales equipped with the AESA radar, following the French Navy which was slated to receive AESA-equipped Rafales starting in 2013.[114]
To enable the Rafale to perform in the air supremacy role, it includes several passive sensor systems. The front-sector electro-optical system orOptronique Secteur Frontal (OSF), developed by Thales, is completely integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible andinfrared wavelengths.[115] The OSF enables the deployment of infrared missiles such as theMICA atbeyond visual range distances; it can also be used for detecting and identifying airborne targets, as well as those on the ground and at sea.[116] Dassault describes the OSF as being immune to jamming and capable of providing covert long-range surveillance.[110] In 2012, an improved version of the OSF was deployed operationally.[113]
Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to theF1 ("France 1") standard, which were equipped for the air-to-air interceptor combat duties, but lacked any armament for air-to-ground operations. The F1 standard became operational in 2004.[117][118] Later deliveries were to the "F2" standard, which added the capability for conducting air-to-ground operations; the first F2 standard Rafale M was delivered to the French Navy in May 2006.[119] Starting in 2008 onwards, Rafale deliveries have been to the nuclear-capable F3 standard that also added reconnaissance with the Areos reconnaissance pod,[117] and it has been reported that all aircraft built to the earlier F1 and F2 standards are to be upgraded to become F3s.[90][92]
The Rafale's weapons
F3 standard Rafales are capable of undertaking many different mission roles with a range of equipment, namely air defence/superiority missions with Mica IR and EM air-to-air missiles, and precision ground attacks typically usingSCALP EG cruise missiles andAASM Hammer air-to-surface missiles. In addition, anti-shipping missions could be carried out using the AM39Exocetsea skimming missile, while reconnaissance flights would use a combination of onboard and external pod-based sensor equipment. Furthermore, the aircraft could conduct nuclear strikes when armed withASMP-A missiles.[120] In 2010, France ordered 200MBDA Meteorbeyond-visual-range air-to-air missiles (BVRAAM) which greatly increases the distance at which the Rafale can engage aerial targets.[121][122]
The F4 standard program was launched on 20 March 2017 by the French ministry of defence.[123] The first F4.1 standard test aircraft was delivered in March 2023.[124]
For compatibility with armaments of varying types and origins, the Rafale's onboard store management system is compliant withMIL-STD-1760, an electrical interface between an aircraft and its carriage stores, thereby simplifying the incorporation of many of their existing weapons and equipment.[80] The Rafale is typically outfitted with 14hardpoints (only 13 on Rafale M version), five of which are suitable for heavy armament or equipment such as auxiliary fuel tanks, and has a maximum external load capacity of nine tons. In addition to the above equipment, the Rafale carries the 30 mmGIAT 30 revolver cannon and can be outfitted with a range of laser-guided bombs and ground-attack munitions.[80] According to Dassault, the Rafale's onboard mission systems enable ground attack and air-to-air combat operations to be carried out within a single sortie, with many functions capable of simultaneous execution in conjunction with another, increasing survivability and versatility.[80]
Closeup of the rear of the airframe and the two engine nozzles
The Rafale is fitted with two Snecma M88 engines, each capable of providing up to 50 kilonewtons (11,000 pounds-force) ofdry thrust and 75 kN (17,000 lbf) with afterburners. The engines feature several advances, including a non-polluting[clarification needed] combustion chamber, single-crystal turbine blades,powder metallurgy disks, and technology to reduce radar and infrared signatures.[80] The M88 enables the Rafale to supercruise while carrying four missiles and one drop tank.[125][126]
Qualification of the M88-2 engine ended in 1996 and the first production engine was delivered by the end of the year.[127] Due to delays in engine production, the Rafale A demonstrator was initially powered by the General Electric F404 engine.[8][128] In May 2010, a Rafale flew for the first time with the M88-4E engine, an upgraded variant with lower maintenance requirements than the preceding M88-2.[129] The engine is of amodular design for ease of construction and maintenance and to enable older engines to be retrofitted with improved subsections upon availability, such as existing M88-2s being upgraded to M88-4E standard.[127] There has been interest in more powerful M88 engines by potential export customers, such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE).[130] As of 2007[update], athrust vectoring variant of the engine designated as M88-3D was also under development.[118]
In December 2000, theFrench Naval Aviation (Aéronavale), the air arm of the French Navy, received its first two Rafale M fighters. On 18 May the following year, the squadronFlottille 12F, which had previously operated theF-8 Crusader, became the first squadron to operate the Rafale after it was officially re-activated prior to the delivery of the sixth Rafale.[1]Flottille 12F immediately participated inTrident d'Or aboard theaircraft carrierCharles de Gaulle with warships from ten other nations. During themaritime exercise, the Navy tested the Rafale's avionics during simulated interceptions with various foreign aircraft, in addition to carrier take-offs and landings.[1][131] After almost four years of training, the Rafale M was declared operational with the French Navy in June 2004.[132]
The Rafale M is fully compatible withUnited States Navy aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks.[133] On 4 June 2010, during an exercise onUSS Harry S. Truman, a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its engine replaced on board an American aircraft carrier.[134]
In 2002, the Rafales were first deployed to a combat zone; seven Rafale Ms embarked aboardCharles de Gaulle of the French Navy during "Mission Héraclès", the French participation in "Operation Enduring Freedom". They flew from the aircraft carrier over Afghanistan, but the F1 standard precluded air-to-ground missions and the Rafale did not see any action. In March 2002, the aircraft carrier was stationed in theGulf of Oman, where its complement of Rafales undertook training operations.[135] In June 2002, whileCharles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea, Rafales conducted several patrols near the India-Pakistan border.[136][137]
In December 2015, American and French military officials reportedly discussed the possibility of French naval Rafale Ms flying combat missions from a US NavyNimitz-class aircraft carrier as soon as January 2017. This would enable continued French Navy operations against ISIL whileCharles de Gaulle undergoes its year-and-a-half-long major refit, scheduled to begin in early 2017. Although Rafales have launched and landed on U.S. carriers to demonstrate interoperability, it would be the first time they would fly combat missions from one. As many as 18 Rafale Ms could be deployed on a carrier, although some room would have to be made for French Navy support crews familiar with maintaining the Rafale, as well as for spare parts and munitions.[citation needed] Operation Chesapeake, a test of this interoperability, was conducted in May 2018, when 12 Rafales of Flottilles 11F, 12F, and17F, along with nearly 350 support personnel embarked aboardUSSGeorge H.W. Bush for two weeks of carrier qualifications and exercises after conducting a month of shore based training atNaval Air Station Oceana.[139]
On 9 January 2025,Rafale M conducted joint anti-aircraft drills withSu-30MKI andJaguar aircraft of theIndian Air Force. The French Carrier Strike Group (CSG) centered on theCharles de Gaulle, the carrier air wing including Rafale M, her escort ships and fleet support shipJacques Chevallier were on a visit to India between 4 and 9 January 2025 during the MissionClemenceau 25. Simultaneously,INS Mormugao conducted joint navigational drills andMaritime Partnership Exercise with the escort ships.[140][141]
Formation of five Rafales making a flypast in 2006
In April 2005, the Air Force received its first three F2 standard Rafale Bs at theCentre d'expertise aérienne militaire (CEAM, i.e. the Military Air Expertise Centre) atMont-de-Marsan, where they were tasked to undertake operational evaluation and pilot conversion training.[54] By this time, it was expected thatEscadron de Chasse (Fighter Squadron)1/7 at Saint-Dizier would receive a nucleus of 8–10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006, in preparation for full operational service (with robust air-to-air and stand off air-to-ground precision attack capabilities) starting from mid-2007 (whenEC 1/7 would have about 20 aircraft, 15 two-seaters and five single-seaters).[132][142]
In 2007, a "crash program" upgrade on six Rafales enabled the use of laser-guided bombs in readiness for action in Afghanistan. Three of these aircraft of the Air Force were deployed toDushanbe in Tajikistan, while the three others wereRafale Marine of the Navy on boardCharles De Gaulle.[143] The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007, and the firstGBU-12 was launched on 28 March in support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan, marking the operational début of the Rafale.[144] Between January 2009 and December 2011, a minimum of three Rafales were stationed atKandahar International Airport to conduct operations in support of NATO ground forces.[145]
On 19 March 2011, French Rafales began conducting reconnaissance andstrike missions over Libya inOpération Harmattan, in support ofUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1973; initial targets were artillery pieces laying siege around the rebel city ofBenghazi.[146] The Rafale could operate in Libya without the support of SEAD aircraft, using the onboard SPECTRA self-defence system instead.[102] On 24 March 2011, it was reported that a Rafale had destroyed aLibyan Air ForceG-2/Galeb light attack/trainer aircraft on the runway.[147] During the deployment, Rafale destroyed multiple SAM systems of Libyan military using its geolocation feature and with a mix of different ammunition. Unlike other allied aircraft, the Rafale did not require any dedicated EW/EA aircraft for escort.[148]
Rafales typically conducted six-hour sorties over Libyan airspace, armed with four MICA air-to-air missiles, four or six AASM "Hammer" bombs, a Thales Damoclès targeting pod and two drop tanks.[102] Each sortie needed multiple aerial refuelling operations from coalition tanker aircraft.[149] The AASM precision-guidance weapon system allowed the Rafale to conduct high-altitude bombing missions using bombs weighing between 125 and 1,000 kg (280 and 2,200 lb).[149] Reportedly, Rafale crews preferred to use GPS-guided munitions with greater reliability and range. SCALP weapons were deployed on only one or two sorties, such as against a Libyanairbase at Al-Jufra.[150] In 2011, aviation journalist Craig Hoyle speculated that the Rafale's Libyan performance is likely to impact export sales, noting that the Rafale had maintained a high operational rate throughout. Hoyle also noted that the conflict had led to several urgent operational requirements, including a lighter ground-attack munition and AASM modifications forclose air support.[149]
A French Air Force Rafale B duringOperation Serval in Mali, 2013
In January 2013, the Rafale took part inOpération Serval, the French military intervention insupport to the government of Mali against theMovement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa.[151] The first mission was carried out on 13 January, when four Rafales took off from an airbase in France to strike rebel training camps, depots and facilities in the city ofGao in eastern Mali.[152] Subsequent airstrikes in the following days by Rafale and Mirage fighters were reportedly instrumental in the withdrawal of Islamist militant forces fromTimbuktu andDouentza.[153] Both Rafale andMirage 2000D aircraft used in the conflict have been based outside of North Africa, making use of aerial refuelling tanker aircraft to fly long range sorties across Algerian airspace and into Mali.[154]
In August 2013, it was proposed that France may halve the number of Rafales to be delivered over the next six years for a total of 26 aircraft to be delivered during this period; foreign export procurement have been viewed as critical to maintain production under this proposal. While production would be slowed, France would still receive the same number of Rafales overall.[155]
In September 2014, Rafales started reconnaissance missions over Iraq forOpération Chammal, France's contribution to the international effort to combat IS militants. Six Rafales were initially tasked with identifying IS positions in support ofUS airstrikes, flying fromAl Dhafra Air Base, UAE.[156][157] On 18 September, Rafales joined American attack operations, launching four strikes near the Northern Iraqi town ofZummar that destroyed a logistics depot and killed dozens of IS fighters.[158][159] In April 2018, during theSyrian Civil War, five Rafale Bs from theEscadron de Chasse 1/4 Gascogne participated in the2018 missile strikes against Syria. Each was loaded with twoSCALP EG missiles.[160] French Air and Space Force Rafales were deployed to help blunt theIranian attack against Israel on 13 April 2024 by shooting down an unspecified number of unmanned aerial vehicles. The Rafales, based in Jordan, were operating in Iraqi and Syrian airspace as part of Opération Chammal.[161][162]
In November 2014, Egypt was reportedly in negotiations with France to purchase 24 to 36 Rafales, subject to a financing and weapons package agreement.[163] By February 2015, the two countries were negotiating a loan from France's export credit agency to reach an export agreement for up to 24 Rafales. The condition for Egypt to buy the 12 additional fighters was to getSCALP-EG missiles, this was compromised by theUS blocking the deal.[164] Egypt aimed for the deal's quick completion as to have them on display at the inauguration of theSuez Canal expansion in August 2015.[165]
On 16 February 2015, Egypt became the Rafale's first international customer when it officially ordered 24 Rafales,[166] as part of a larger deal, including aFREMM multipurpose frigate and missiles, worth US$5.9 billion (€5.2 billion).[167][168] The order comprised 8 single-seat models and 16 two-seaters. In July 2015, a ceremony marking Egypt's acceptance of its first three Rafales, was held at Dassault's flight test center inIstres.[169] In January 2016, Egypt received three more Rafales.[170] All six aircraft are two-seat models (Rafale DM) diverted from French Air Force deliveries.[171] Egypt received the third batch of three Rafales flown by Egyptian pilots from France in April 2017; this included the first single-seat model (Rafale EM) to be delivered to theEgyptian Air Force.[172] Egypt took delivery of the fourth batch of two Rafale EMs in July 2017.[173] The fifth batch, comprising the last 3 Rafale EMs, was delivered in November 2017, increasing the number in service to 14 Rafales.[174]
In June 2016, Egypt begun negotiations with Dassault to acquire 12 additional Rafales, intending to exercise an option of the first contract.[175][176] An Egyptian delegation visited France in November 2017 for negotiations.[177] In May 2021, Egypt ordered 30 more Rafales in a contract worth $4.5bn after France achieved making the SCALP EG missileITAR-free by replacing the US-made parts with French-made components.[178][179] The Egyptian Air Force is interested in buying the Rafale F4 variant once Dassault prepares it for foreign buyers.[180]
Analysts view the relatively quick series of 84[181] orders from Egypt and Qatar as being influenced by theArab Spring and uncertainty of US involvement in the Middle East.[182]
Qatari Rafale at Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport in 2019
TheQatar Emiri Air Force evaluated the Rafale alongside theBoeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, theBoeing F-15E, the Eurofighter Typhoon and theLockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II to replace itsDassault Mirage 2000-5 fleet. In June 2014, Dassault claimed it was close to signing a contract with Qatar for 72 Rafales.[183] On 30 April 2015,SheikhTamim bin Hamad Al Thani announced to French PresidentFrançois Hollande that Qatar would order 24 Rafale with an option to buy 12 more aircraft.[184] On 4 May, a €6.3 billion ($7.02 billion) contract for 24 Rafales was finalised; additionally, the contract included the provision of long-range cruise missiles and Meteor missiles as well as the training of 36 Qatari pilots and 100 technicians by the French military and several Qatari intelligence officers; thus, the price can be viewed as €263M for each aircraft.[185][186]
On 7 December 2017, the option for 12 more Rafales was exercised for €1.1 billion (or €92M each) while adding an additional option for 36 further fighters.[187] The first Qatari Rafale was delivered in February 2019.[188][189]
The Rafale was one of the six aircraft competing in theIndian MRCA competition for 126 multirole fighters. Originally, the Mirage 2000 had been considered for the competition, but Dassault withdrew it in favour of the Rafale.[190] In February 2011, French Rafales flew demonstrations in India, including air-to-air combat againstSu-30MKIs.[191] In April 2011, theIndian Air Force (IAF) shortlisted the Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon for the US$10.4 billion contract.[192] On 31 January 2012, the IAF announced the Rafale as the preferred bidder.[193][194] It was proposed that 18 Rafales would be supplied to the IAF by 2015 in fly-away condition, while the remaining 108 would be manufactured byHindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in India undertransfer of technology agreements.[195][196] The contract for 126 Rafales, services, and parts may have been worth up to US$20 billion.[197][198]
The deal stalled due to disagreements over local production; Dassault refused responsibility for the 108 HAL-manufactured Rafales, holding reservations over HAL's ability to accommodate the complex manufacturing and technology transfers; instead, Dassault said it would have to negotiate two separate production contracts by both companies. TheIndian Defence Ministry instead wanted Dassault to be solely responsible for the sale and delivery of all 126 aircraft.[199][200] In May 2013,The Times of India reported that negotiations were "back on track", with plans for the first 18 Rafales to be delivered in 2017.[201] In March 2014, the two sides reportedly agreed that the first 18 Rafales would be delivered to India in flying condition and that the remaining 108 would be 70 percent built by HAL.[202] By December 2014, India and France reportedly expected to sign a contract by March 2015.[203]
In April 2015, during Prime MinisterNarendra Modi's visit to Paris, India requested the swift delivery of 36 Rafales in a fly-away condition.[204][205] India withdrew the MMRCA tender on 30 July 2015.[206] Then, India and France missed a July target to finalise the 36-aircraft deal. The previously agreed-upon terms in April totaled US$8 billion for 36 aircraft costing $200 million each, with an offset requirement of 30 percent of the deal's value to be reinvested in India's defence sector and infrastructure for Rafale operations. India insisted on a 50 percent offset and two bases, which France said would increase costs and require separate infrastructure and two sets of maintenance, training and armament storage facilities.[207] On 23 September 2016, Defence MinisterManohar Parrikar and his French counterpartJean-Yves Le Drian signed a €7.8 billion contract for 36 fly-away Rafales with an option for 18 more.[208] Initial deliveries were expected by 2019, and all 36 within six years.[209] The deal included spares and weapons such asMeteor missiles.[210][211] Around August 2017, India considered ordering 36 more Rafales amid tensions with China.[212]
TheIndian National Congress raised an issue over Dassault partnering withAnil Ambani'sReliance Defence and Engineering, a private company with no aviation experience, instead of the state owned HAL. Allegedly, Dassault lacked any choice and was compelled to select Reliance Defence as its partner.Rahul Gandhi alleged that it was favouritism and corruption. Both the French government and Dassault issued a press release stating it was Dassault's decision to choose Reliance Defence.[213][214] Party spokespersonManish Tewari asked for the agreement's details to be made public and questioned if there was an escalation of per-aircraft cost from ₹7.15 billion to ₹16 billion.[215] In November 2018, Congress alleged that procurement procedures were bypassed. A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) case was filed in theSupreme Court for an independent probe into the Rafale procurement. On 14 December 2018, the Apex Court dismissed all petitions, stating it found no irregularities; Reliance Defence reportedly was set to receive just over 3 per cent of the₹300 billion (equivalent to₹400 billion or US$4.7 billion in 2023) of offsets, contrary to the impression that it was to be the biggest beneficiary of the deal.[216][217]
Ahead of the first Rafale's formal handover on 8 October 2019 (IAF Day), the IAF accepted it at Dassault's Bordeaux facility in an event attended by Defence MinisterRajnath Singh and his French counterpart,Florence Parly; it had tail number "RB-001" in reference to IAF chief-designateAir Chief MarshalR. K. S. Bhadauria.[218] The first five Rafales were delivered on 27 July 2020.[219] The last Rafale arrived in April 2022.[220]
The IAF's Rafale fleet is to receive upgrades through the Indian Navy's Rafale Marine deal. For this, 10 of the 36 IAF Rafales will be upgraded to allow buddy-buddy refuelling enhancing their operational range. Other improvements include ground-based support equipment, software upgrades, advanced weapon systems and sensor suites as well as 40 long-rangedrop tanks.[227][228][229]
On the intervening night of 6–7 May 2025, the IAF reportedly deployed Rafales armed withSCALP missiles andAASM Hammer glide bombs during Operation Sindoor to strike nine targets within Pakistan, which India alleged to be terrorist camps.[230][231][232] According to Pakistani authorities, five Indian aircraft were shot down during the operation, including three Rafales.[233] Concurrently,CNN reported the loss of one Rafale cited with claims of an unnamed high ranking French intelligence official,[234][235] whileReuters separately reported that Pakistani J-10 fighters were believed to have shot down at least two Indian aircraft, including a Rafale, citing claims from two unnamed U.S. officials.[236] Pakistan itself implied usingJ-10C fighters in the combat, as well as the use ofPL-15 long-range air-to-air missiles.[237][238][239][240] TheWashington Post reported that the debris consistently matched with at least two French-made IAF aircraft — one of them being a Rafale. One verified image showed the wreckage of the vertical stabilizer of a Rafale; theNational Interest said that, based on this evidence, at least one Rafale was indeed lost.[241][242] Additionally,BBC Verify, the broadcaster's investigative unit, reported that a Rafale had crashed in Indian territory. The unit authenticated three videos showing the wreckage of a Rafale in a field near Bathinda, Punjab. One video, geo-located by BBC Verify, showed Indian troops collecting debris from the crash site during daylight. Two additional clips from the same location, filmed at night, showed debris in a field and a projectile catching fire in the sky before igniting on the ground.[243][244] According to FrenchdeputyMarc Chavent, several sources - including American analysts and NATO intelligence data - credited the J-10C with destroying a Rafale.[245]
On 9 May, thePakistan Air Force reiterated its earlier downing claims of five Indian fighters, including Rafales, backed by crash locations, how the interception of combat formations was conducted, Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) transcript of the formation leader purportedly expressing concern over losing contact with a fellow pilot, and flight data.[246][247][248] On 31 May 2025, India'sChief of Defence StaffGeneralAnil Chauhan admitted that India lost jets, but dismissed Pakistan's claim of downing six fighters.[249][250] According to Chauhan, these losses resulted in corrections in India's tactics in the following strikes of 7, 8 and 10 May.[251][252] On 15 June,Éric Trappier, CEO of Dassault Aviation, publicly refuted Pakistan’s previous claim that its air force had shot down IAF Rafales during Operation Sindoor, calling the assertion "inaccurate" in the company’s first official response to the incident.[253][254]
Following India’s airstrikes against Pakistan, French officials cited by theAssociated Press on condition of anonymity alleged that China had engaged in a coordinated effort to undermine the international sales of Rafale fighter jets. French military officials stated that they have not found sufficient evidence to directly link online posts criticizing the performance of Rafale jets to the Chinese government, however, French intelligence services reported that Chinese embassy defence attachés conveyed same narratives during meetings with security and defence officials from other countries, including claims that Indian Rafale jets had not performed well and also promoted Chinese-made weaponry. Commenting on the incident to Associated Press, China’s Ministry of National Defence dismissed the claims stating that China maintains a prudent and responsible approach to military exports.[255][256] According toFrench Air Force Chief General Jérôme Bellanger, he had seen evidence that confirms the loss of a Rafale aircraft during the conflict.[257]
On 7 July, IndianDefence Secretary RK Singh while speaking toCNBC TV18 dismissed claims that India’s Rafale fighter jets were shot down by Pakistan during Operation Sindoor, terming them “inaccurate”. He also emphasised that the Indian armed forces had complete operational autonomy during the conflict.[258]
On 7 July, Indian media outlet The Print reported that Dassault Aviation CEO Éric Trappier had claimed one Indian Rafale may have been lost during a high-altitude training mission due to technical failure, citing the aircraft’s SPECTRA system, which had detected no signs of hostile engagement, as evidence. However Dassault Aviation later claimed the reports were incorrect and issued a clarification: "In response to certain press reports quoting Dassault Aviation Chairman & CEO, Eric Trappier, about the Sindoor operation, Dassault Aviation formally denies that Eric Trappier has made any operational or technical comments regarding the use of the Rafale in this operation."[259][260][261]
On 8 July, Indian media outlets attributed a statement to Ryan Bodenheimer, described as a former U.S. Air Force pilot, who claimed that India’s use of the Rafale’s X-Guard decoy system during recent operations was “the best spoofing and deception we’ve ever seen.” According to him, the small 30 kg device allegedly misled Pakistan’s Chinese-made PL-15E missiles and J-10C fighter jets into targeting decoys instead of actual aircraft. According toBusiness Today, citingJane’s Defence Weekly, some Pakistani claims of downing Rafales may have been hits on these decoys rather than the actual aircraft.[262]
In June 2012,Flight Global reported that theIndian Navy was considering the purchase of Rafale Ms forINS Vikrant.[263] Subsequently, Rafale also won the IAF'sMMRCA competition.[264] In January 2016, the Indian government directed the Indian Navy to be briefed by Dassault on the Rafale M for its aircraft carriers, promoting logistics and spares commonalities between the Navy and IAF.[265] In December 2016, the Indian Navy rejected the naval variant of theHAL Tejas due to it lacking enoughthrust-to-weight ratio with full fuel and weapons load being overweight making it incapable of operating optimally from aircraft carriers. Hence, the Navy was expecting to import fighters from abroad to fulfil its requirements within six years. By this point, it had inducted 30 of the 45MiG-29K that had been ordered while the expected procurement of 50 Tejas Naval aircraft stood cancelled.[266][267]
On 17 January 2017, the Indian Navy released aRequest for Information to procure 57 fighters under theMulti-Role Carrier Borne Fighter (MRCBF) programme to form thefighter wing ofINS Vikrant. The requirements included day-night and all-weather operation capability, shipborne air defence, air-to-surface, buddy-buddyaerial refuelling,reconnaissance,electronic warfare among others. Deliveries would span between three to six months of the contract's signing.[268][269] By June 2017, Dassault with their Rafale M,[270]Boeing withF/A-18E/F,Saab with theGripen Maritime andUAC withMiG-29K had formally responded to the RFI.[271] Talks with Dassault and Boeing began by 2018 while theRequest for Proposal was expected that same year under aStrategic Partnership (SP) model. The Navy was finalising its specific Naval Air Staff Requirements (NASR).[272][273]
On 6 January 2022, a 12-day demonstration of the Rafale M took place at the 283 metre-long shore-based test facility (SBTF) atINS Hansa, Goa. The deal would be in the Government-to-Government (G2G) mode instead of buying directly from the manufacturers. The quantity was further reduced to 26.[278][279][280] Between 20 May[281] and 15 June 2022,[282] two F/A-18E/F Block III completed "operational demonstration tests" in the same facility. Trials included multiple ski-jumps, roll-ins, fly-in-arrestments in various configurations including air-to-air, air-to-ground, and air-to-surface making the jet "compliant" with Indian Navy aircraft carriers.[276][283] By 7 December 2022, the Indian Navy headquarters submitted a report to the ministry of defence in which the Rafale was allegedly the frontrunner after having met all criteria. The Navy HQ had performed detailed analysis of the trial report prepared by the officials who had undertaken the previous trials.[284][285]
On 13 July 2023, Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) of India granted the Acceptance of Necessity (AoN) for the procurement of 26 Rafale M F4 for the Indian Navy along with three additionalKalvari-class submarines.[286] Senior representatives from the Navy, Defense Acquisition Wing, along with Dassault andThales, commenced negotiations on 30 May 2024.[287][288] By late June 2024, the base price of Rafale was decided to be same as that of the IAF.[289] On 3 September 2024, the Defence Acquisition Council dropped the integration ofUttam AESA radar and other indigenous weapons likeAstra missiles on the Rafale M due to high costs and an estimated delay of 8 years for design changes.[290][228] By 29 September 2024, Dassault submitted its final price offer for the 26 aircraft to the Navy.[228][291] The squadron will be based atINS Dega,Visakhapatnam and will form the Carrier Air Group ofVikrant.[292]
The deal, worth over₹63,000crore (US$7.5 billion), included purchase of weapon systems likeMeteor (air-to-air),Exocet (anti-ship) andSCALP (cruise missile) along with five-year performance-based logistics support and training programmes for crew training to operate and maintain the jets, associated ancillary equipment, simulator, spares and Indian Navy-specific design alterations. INS Vikrant will also be equipped for Rafale-M operations as part of the deal.[227][293] Design alterations for Indian Navy jets over those of IAF includehelmet mounted display, low band frequency jammers, improvedradio altimeter and very high frequency range decoys as well as software changes for air to sea mode,electromagnetic interference (EMI) andelectromagnetic compatibility (EMC) among others.[289] By 3 February 2025, the price negotiations were completed.[294][295]
TheCabinet Committee on Security cleared the deal on 9 April 2025. The IN-specific Rafale Ms will be showcased by Dassault within 18 months and all aircraft will be delivered within 37 to 65 months after the contract's signing.[296][297] The deal was signed on 28 April 2025,[298] and comprised 22 single-seat carrier-compatible aircraft and four twin-seat aircraft that will be solely used from land bases.[298][299] The programme was officially launched on 19 June as an Indian defence delegation, led by Joint Secretary and Acquisition Manager (Maritime Systems) Dinesh Kumar, met with French defence officials, led byLt Gen Gael Diaz De Tuesta, Director General of Armament, during theParis Air Show.[300]
In August 2020, the government of Greece announced the acquisition of 18 Rafales.[301][302] Initial reports stated that ten would be the new Rafale C variant in F3-R standard with eight older Rafale in F1 and F2 standard in use with the French Air and Space Force that would be given to Greece.[303]
In January 2021, theHellenic Parliament ratified the agreement with Dassault for the purchase of six new built and 12 used F3-R aircraft formerly used by the Armée de l'Air at a total cost of €2.4 billion, including armaments and ground support.[304] The inter-governmental agreement was signed on 25 January 2021 by the Defense Ministers of Greece and France.[305] This was followed by an additional contract in March 2022 to buy the six additional Rafales, to be delivered from mid-2024.[306] The first aircraft, a Rafale B two-seater, was delivered on 21 July 2021.[307] On 19 January 2022, the first six Rafales landed atTanagra Air Base where a welcoming ceremony was held.[308] The type officially entered service in September 2023.[309] In 2024, it was reported that the Greek government was looking to buy 6 to 12 more Rafales (as well as another Frigate) on the 80th Anniversary of D-Day. They also wanted to negotiate postponing some payments on previous arms deals to 2028–2030, and negotiate the transfer of 24 Mirage 2000-R that they wanted to discard as partial payment.[310]
The Republic ofCroatia received a proposal for twelve used Rafales F3Rs in September 2020 as part of a bid to replace theCroatian Air Force'sMiG-21s. The total package offered costs€1 billion (including weapon systems, spare parts, logistics and training), and competed with new F-16V Block 70, Israeli used F-16C/D Barak raised to ACE configuration, andSaab Gripen.[311] On 28 May 2021, Croatian Prime MinisterAndrej Plenković announced the purchase of twelve used Rafales F3-R C/B on order, ten single-seater C F3-R and two two-seater Rafale B F3Rs.[312][313] The contract was signed on 25 November 2021.[314][315]
On 2 October 2023, Croatia received the first of twelve Rafales during a ceremony atMont-de-Marsan Air Base.[316][317] The 12th and final aircraft was delivered on 25 April 2025.[318]
In 2009, theUnited Arab Emirates Air Force was interested in an upgraded Rafale with more powerful engines and radar, and advanced air-to-air missiles.[319] In October 2011, Dassault was confident that a US$10 billion deal for up to 60 Rafales would be signed.[320] However, Deputy Supreme Commander of theUnion Defence Force,Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, in November 2011 called the French offer "uncompetitive and unworkable";[321] In 2010, France allegedly asked the UAE to pay US$2.6 billion of the total cost of Rafale upgrades.[322] Consequently, the UAE explored a purchase of the Eurofighter Typhoon[323] or the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.[324] The newspaperLa Tribune reported in February 2012, that the UAE was still considering the US$10-billion deal for 60 Rafales. Interoperability among the Gulf air forces had renewed Qatari and Kuwaiti interest in the Rafale.[325] In January 2013, President Hollande stated that he would discuss the Rafale during an official visit to the UAE.[326] In December 2013, the UAE reportedly chose not to proceed with a deal for defence and security services, including the supply of Typhoons.[327]
In September 2014, it was reported that the UAE could acquire 40 Rafales in addition to upgrading its existing Mirage 2000s.[328] In November 2015, Reuters reported that Major General Ibrahim Nasser Al Alawi, commander of the UAE Air Force and Air Defence, had confirmed that the UAE was in final negotiations to purchase 60 Rafales.[329] In 2019 a series of Rafale F3-R trials were conducted at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE.[330] On 3 December 2021, Dassault announced that the UAE had signed an order for 80 Rafale F4 in a government-to-government deal,[331] which made the UAE the largest Rafale operator in the region and second to France.[332] The deal makes the United Arab Emirates Air Force the first user of the Rafale F4 standard outside France.[333]
On 29 January 2025, UAE received its first Rafale at a ceremony in Paris. The first aircraft would be used for testing and training in France, while deliveries for the rest of the fleet to commence in 2027.[334][335]
Rafale scale model in Indonesian Air Force markings atIndo Defence 2024
In January 2020, the Indonesian government expressed interest in buying up to 48 Rafales to modernise theIndonesian Air Force.[336][337] In February 2021, Indonesia's Minister of DefensePrabowo Subianto announced that the purchase of 36 units, as part of a large procurement programme includingA330 tankers and complementary American products, was planned and that funds had been secured for its finalization.[338] On 7 June 2021, Indonesia signed a letter of intent to buy 36 Rafales and associated weapons and support.
On 20 January 2022, Prabowo Subianto confirmed, that Indonesia completed the negotiation of the contract pending activation of the formal agreement by France. On 10 February 2022, Dassault stated that Indonesia had officially signed an order for 42 Rafale F4[339][340] consisting of 30 single-seat and 12 double-seat.[341] The first tranche for six Rafales came into force in September 2022. On 10 August 2023, Dassault announced that a contract covering a second tranche of 18 Rafales for Indonesia had come into force that day, bringing the total under contract to 24.[342] On 8 January 2024, Dassault Aviation disclosed that the third, and final tranche of 18 Rafales came into force, bringing the total aircraft ordered to 42.[343]
During the French PresidentEmmanuel Macron visit to Indonesia on 28 May 2025, both countries signed a Letter of Intent on various military hardware, which includes undisclosed amounts of additional Rafales.[344]La Tribune reported that Indonesia would order "a dozen" of additional Rafales.[345] The French media further reported on 4 July that Indonesia may order up to 24 additional Rafales.[346]
On 8 April 2024, President Vučić announced the country's intention to purchase 12 Rafales, stating that "concrete agreements regarding the purchase of Rafale jets" had been made with French PresidentEmmanuel Macron. Contract negotiations were completed in August 2024.[350]
The contract for nine single-seater and three two-seater Rafales F3s is worth€2.7 billion (US$3 billion).[351]
In March 2020,La Tribune reported that France's Minister of the Armed Forces, Florence Parly, promoted the Rafale's performance to Bangladeshi Prime MinisterSheikh Hasina, who is also Minister of Defense.[352][353]
In November 2020, Iraqi Defence MinisterJumaa Anad stated thatIraq plans to buy Rafales for theIraqi Air Force.[357] In February 2022, Iraq reportedly intends to acquire 14 Rafale F4s, payable incrude oil.[358] However, as of October 2024, it was still weighing its options with reports that France will not be selling theMeteor AAM to Iraq if an order was placed.[359]
The Rafale was a contender for the replacement of theRoyal Malaysian Air Force's (RMAF)Mikoyan MiG-29s, with a requirement to equip three squadrons with 36 to 40 fighters with an estimated budget of RM6 billion to RM8 billion (US$1.84 billion to US$2.46 billion). Other competitors were the Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing F/A-18/F Super Hornet and Saab JAS 39 Gripen.[360] In July 2017, acquisition efforts were suspended with the RMAF looking instead to buy new maritime patrol aircraft and advanced trainers with light attack capabilities to confront the growing threat of Islamist militants in the Southeast Asian region.[361]
In July 2024, it was reported that Peru as part of a revitalization program for the combat sections of thePeruvian Air Force (FAP) was considering the Rafale as one of the contenders for a recently launched contract for fighters.[362] General Carlos Enrique Chávez Cateriano, the commanding general of the FAP, announced on 8 July 2024 that a competition had been launched and the Rafale was one of two leading contenders, with the other leading contender being theKAI KF-21 Boramae.[363] The FAP is operating Mirage 2000P Fighters and Mirage 2000DP trainers as of 2024.[citation needed]
In February 2022,La Tribune reported thatSaudi Arabia is interested in the Rafale,[364] then reported in December 2022 that Saudi Arabia would need between 100 and 200 fighters.[365] In October 2023, Saudi Arabian authorities officially asked the French company Dassault Aviation to send a quote and a proposed delivery schedule for 54 Rafale F4 combat aircraft.[366]
On 26 November 2023, French PresidentEmmanuel Macron offered Rafale to both Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan governments, according toLa Tribune.[367]Scramble reported that Uzbekistan is interested in buying 24 Rafales, citing the source in France government.[368]
The Rafale has been marketed for export to various countries. Various commentators and industry sources have highlighted the high cost of the aircraft as detrimental to the Rafale's sales prospects. Its acquisition cost is roughly US$100 million (2010),[369] while its operational cost hovers around US$16,500 (2012) for every flight-hour.[370] The Saab JAS 39 Gripen, in comparison, costs only US$4,700 per flight-hour to operate.[370] According to a 2009 article by the Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis, unlike the American government and its relationship with Boeing and Lockheed Martin, the lack of communication between the French government and Dassault has hampered a worldwide cooperative sales effort, as demonstrated by the case with Morocco in 2007.[371]
In 2009, Belgium suggested that they may buy F-35s in the 2020s to replace Belgium's 34 F-16A/B MLU fleet.[372] An article published in Belgian newspaperL'Avenir on 19 April 2015 speculated that, if the nuclear strike role via Belgium'sNuclear sharing policy were retained in the request for proposals, Belgium would be almost forced to buy the F-35 as to maintain this role.[373][374] Belgium officially launched its F-16 replacement program in March 2017, issuing requests for proposals to three European and two US manufacturers:Boeing Defense, Space & Security,Lockheed Martin, Dassault,Eurofighter GmbH andSaab Group, offering the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet,F-35 Lightning II, Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon and Saab JAS 39 Gripen respectively.[375][376] On 25 October 2018, Belgium officially selected the offer for 34 F-35As; government officials stated that it had come down to price, and that "The offer from the Americans was the best in all seven evaluation criteria". The total purchasing price for the aircraft and support until 2030 totaled €4 billion, €600 million cheaper than the budgeted €4.6 billion.[377][378] In April 2020, the first F-35 contract was signed, with deliveries to begin in 2023.[379]
In June 2008, theBrazilian Air Force issued a request for information on the following aircraft: F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, F-16 Fighting Falcon, Rafale,Su-35,Gripen NG and Eurofighter Typhoon.[380] In October 2008, the service selected three finalists for F-X2 – Dassault Rafale, Gripen NG and Boeing F/A-18E/F.[381] On 5 January 2010, media reports stated that the final evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Force placed the Gripen ahead of the other two contenders based on unit and operating costs.[382][383] In February 2011, Brazilian PresidentDilma Rousseff had reportedly decided in favour of the F/A-18.[384] AfterEdward Snowden's revelation that the NSA had been intercepting Rouseff's private communications, and her ensuing fury, the Brazilian government selected the Gripen NG in December 2013 in a US$5 billion deal to equip the air force.[385][386]
The Rafale was amongst various fighters proposed to replace theRoyal Canadian Air Force'sMcDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet.[387] In 2005, a report compiled by Canada's Department of Defence reviewing aircraft noted concerns over the Rafale's interoperability with US forces; Dassault had also been unable to confirm engine performance during cold weather conditions.[388] In July 2010, the Canadian government announced the F-35 as the CF-18's replacement; the nation was already a partner in theJoint Strike Fighter program since 1997 and a Tier 3 partner for the F-35 since 2002.[389][390] In December 2012, the Canadian government announced that the F-35 buy had been abandoned due to cost rises and that a fresh procurement process would begin.[391] In January 2013, Dassault responded to Canada's request for information.[392] Various aircraft were considered, including the F-35.[393] In January 2014, Dassault offered a contract with full technology transfer, allowing Canada to perform its own support and upgrades, thereby lowering long-term service costs.[394][395] In November 2018, Dassault withdrew from the competition, reportedly over interoperability and intelligence sharing requirements, particularly with the US, complicated by France's lack of involvement in theFive Eyes intelligence-sharing group.[396][397]
In June 2022,La Tribune reported Dassault made an offer for 15 fighters and 9 in option for theColombian Air Force. Colombia was interested in used ones, but France denied, taking into consideration it already sold 24 jets to Croatia and Greece.[398] On 21 December 2022, the Colombian government announced that they had shortlisted the Rafale for a potential 16 aircraft order to replace their agingKfir.[399] Nevertheless, on 3 January 2023, Colombia and Dassault explained they could not come to an agreement, mainly because of the high price-tag of the planes. On 1 April, Colombia issued a new RFP for new planes, with the Rafale, the Gripen and the F-16 as favorites.[400]On 3 April 2025, Colombia announced it had selected theGripen E/F to replace itsKfir fleet in a deal expected to include 16 to 24 units.[401][402]
In June 2015, a working group set up by the Finnish MoD proposed starting theHX Fighter Program to replace theFinnish Air Force's current fleet ofF/A-18 Hornets. The group recognises five potential types: Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen E/F.[403] In December 2015, the Finnish MoD informed Great Britain, France, Sweden and the US informing them of the launch of the HX Fighter Program to replace the Hornet fleet, which will be decommissioned by 2025, with multi-role fighters; the Rafale is mentioned as a potential fighter.[404] The request for information was sent in early 2016; five responses were received in November 2016.[405] In December 2021, the Finnish newspaper Iltalehti reported that several foreign and security policy sources had confirmed the Finnish Defense Forces' recommendation of the F-35 as Finland's next fighter due to its "capability and expected long lifespan".[406][407]
In February 2009, French PresidentNicolas Sarkozy announced that Kuwait was considering buying up to 28 Rafales.[408] In October 2009, during a visit to Paris, the Kuwaiti Defence Minister expressed interest in the Rafale and said that he was awaiting Dassault's terms.[409] Islamist lawmakers in the Kuwaiti national assembly threatened to block such a purchase, accusing the Defence Minister of lack of transparency and being manipulated by business interests.[410] In January 2012, the French Defence Minister said that both Kuwait and Qatar were waiting to see if the UAE first purchased the Rafale and that Kuwait would look to buy 18–22 Rafales.[411] However, on 11 September 2015, Eurofighter announced that an agreement had been reached with Kuwait to buy 28 Typhoons.[412][413]
In 2005, theRepublic of Singapore Air Force launched its Next Generation Fighter (NGF) programme to replace its ageingA-4SU Super Skyhawks. Several options were considered and theDefence Science & Technology Agency (DSTA) conducted a detailed technical assessment, simulations and other tests to determine the final selection. This reduced the list of competitors to the Rafale and theF-15SG Strike Eagle. In December 2005, Singapore ordered 12 F-15SGs.[414] According toDefense Industry Daily, key reasons for the selection were that, despite the Rafale's superior aerodynamics, it had insufficient range, weapons, and sensor integration.[415]
In February 2007, Switzerland was reportedly considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace its ageingNorthrop F-5 Tiger IIs.[416] A one-month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen Airforce Base, consisting of approximately 30 evaluation flights; the Rafale, along with the JAS 39 Gripen and the Typhoon, were evaluated.[417] Although a leakedSwiss Air Force evaluation report revealed that the Rafale won the competition on technical grounds,[N 6] on 30 November 2011, the Swiss Federal Council announced plans to buy 22 Gripen NGs due to its lower acquisition and maintenance costs.[419] Due toa referendum, this purchase never happened.
In March 2018, Swiss officials named contenders in its Air 2030 program: The Rafale, Saab Gripen, Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and Lockheed Martin F-35.[420][421] In October 2018, the Swiss Air Force was reportedly limited to buying a single-engine fighter for budgetary reasons.[422] In May 2019, the Rafale performed demonstration flights atPayerne Air Base for comparison against other bids.[423] On 30 June 2021, theSwiss Federal Council proposed toParliament the acquisition of 36 F-35As[424][425] at a cost of up to 6 billionSwiss francs (US$6.5 billion), citing the aircraft's cost- and combat-effectiveness.[426] However, it was later confirmed that the costs are capped for a period of just 10 years.[427] The Liberal Greens have promised to examine the F-35's environmental impact.[428] The Swiss anti-military groupGSoA intended to contest the purchase in another national referendum supported by theGreen Party of Switzerland and theSocial Democratic Party of Switzerland (which previously managed to block the Gripen).[429][430] In August 2022, they registered the initiative, with 120,000 people having signed in less than a year (with 100,000 required).[431]
On 15 September 2022, the Swiss National council gave the Federal council permission to sign the purchase deal, with a time limit for signing of March 2023.[432] The deal to buy 36 F-35A was signed on 19 September 2022, with deliveries to commence in 2027 and conclude by 2030, bypassing the popular initiative.[433][434]
In 2002, theRepublic of Korea Air Force chose the F-15K Slam Eagle over the Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon and Sukhoi Su-35 for its 40 aircraftF-X Phase 1 fighter competition.[435]
In January 2007, the French newspaperJournal du Dimanche reported that Libya sought 13 to 18 Rafales "in a deal worth as much as US$3.24 billion".[436] In December 2007,Saif al-Islam Gaddafi declared Libya's interest in the Rafale,[437] but no order was placed. French Rafales later attacked targets in Libya as part of the internationalmilitary intervention during the2011 Libyan civil war.[438]
In late 2007,La Tribune reported that a prospective US$2.85 billion sale to Morocco had fallen through, the government selecting the F-16C/D instead.[439][440] While French Defense MinisterHervé Morin labelled it as overly sophisticated and too costly, defense analysists have said that miscalculations of the DGA's offer price and hesitations over financing were detrimental to the negotiations.[440][441]
In February 2009, France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguars.[442] In December 2012, Oman placed an order for 12 Typhoons.[443][444]
Dassault used this designation (D fordiscret) in the early 1990s to emphasise the new semi-stealthy design features.[44]
Rafale B
Two-seater version for the French Air and Space Force.[36]
Rafale C
Same as Rafale B but single-seat version for the French Air and Space Force.[36]
Rafale M
Similar to Rafale C, but with modifications to allow operations fromCATOBAR – equipped aircraft carriers. For carrier operations, the M model has a strengthened airframe, longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose-up attitude, largertailhook between the engines, and a built-in boarding ladder. Consequently, the Rafale M weighs about 500 kg (1,100 lb) more than the Rafale C.[36][40] It is the only non-US fighter type cleared to operate from the decks of US carriers, using catapults and theirarresting gear, as demonstrated in 2008 when six Rafales fromFlottille 12F integrated into theUSS Theodore Roosevelt Carrier Air Wing interoperability exercise.[445]
Rafale N
Originally called the Rafale BM, was a planned missile-only two-seater version for theAéronavale.[135] Budgetary constraints have been cited as grounds for its cancellation.[446]
Croatian Air Force – 12 ex-French C/B F3-R Rafales, consisting of 10 single-seat C F3-R and 2x two-seat B F3-R fighters. The first six were delivered on 25 April 2024 (2 B + 4 C) with the remaining six single-seaters are to be delivered in 2025.[454][315] In October 2023, Croatia officially acquired the first aircraft at a ceremony atMont-de-Marsan Air Base.[316][317] The 12th Rafale was delivered on 25 April 2025.[318]
A total of 234 have been ordered out of a planned 286.[92] As of 2024, 180 units were delivered to the French Armed Forces, with 12 units sold to Greece and another 12 to Croatia, France currently operates around 156 Rafale. Once the deliveries completed, France is expected to field around 225 units. 185 for the Air and Space Force and 40 for the Navy. All units are expected to be delivered by 2035. In February 2025, the French defense minister announced a plan to buy 30 additional Rafales, which would put the total Rafale orders from France to 264 units.[456][457][458][459][449][460][461]
Hellenic Air Force – Greece ordered 18 Rafales in 2020,[467] and an additional six in 2021.[468] The first was delivered on 21 July 2021.[469] All 24 have been delivered to the Hellenic Air Force as of January 2025.[470][471][472][473][474]
Qatar Emiri Air Force – 36 ordered, all delivered. Qatar ordered 24 of the fighters in 2015, and 12 more in 2018. It also has an option to order 36 more.[481] As of 2023, all aircraft were delivered.[482]
On 6 December 2007, a French Air Force twin-seat Rafale crashed during a training flight. The pilot, who suffered fromspatial disorientation, died in the accident.[489]
On 24 September 2009, after unarmed test flights, two French Navy Rafales returning to the aircraft carrierCharles de Gaulle, collided in mid-air about 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the town ofPerpignan in southwest France. One test pilot, identified as François Duflot, died in the accident, while the other was rescued.[490]
On 28 November 2010, a Rafale from the carrierCharles de Gaulle crashed in theArabian Sea. This aircraft was supporting Allied operations in Afghanistan. The pilot ejected safely and was rescued by a rescue helicopter from the carrier. Later reports said the engines stopped after being starved of fuel due toconfusion by the pilot in switching fuel tanks.[491]
On 2 July 2012, during a joint exercise, a Rafale from the carrierCharles de Gaulle plunged into theMediterranean Sea. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by an American search and rescue helicopter from the carrierUSS Dwight D. Eisenhower.[492]
On 14 August 2024, two French Rafale B two-seaters collided overColombey-les-Belles. While one pilot had ejected before crashing into the ground, the trainee and instructor of the second aircraft were reported missing. Both aircraft were based inSaint-Dizier – Robinson Air Base. By 15 August, the death of the missing pilots was announced.[493][494]
Fuel capacity: 4,700 kg (10,362 lb) internal for single-seater (C); 4,400 kg (9,700 lb) for two-seater (B)
With external tanks: 4,700 kg (10,362 lb) internal and 6,700 kg (14,771 lb) external[495]
Maximum fuel: (C): 16,550 L (4,370 US gal; 3,640 imp gal) (5,750 L (1,520 US gal; 1,260 imp gal) internal + 2,300 L (610 US gal; 510 imp gal) in 2x conformal tanks[499]
Hardpoints: 14 Externalhardpoints for Air and Space Force versions (Rafale B/C), 13 for Navy version (Rafale M) with a capacity of 9,500 kg (20,900 lb) external fuel and ordnance, with provisions to carry combinations of:
Missiles:
Air-to-air:
MICA EM and IR (most widely used air-to-air missiles on Rafale; MICA-EM and MICA-IR both used for short-range and also for medium-rangeBVR combat)
^Quote: "Dassault demands design leadership as the price for European co-operation."[15]
^Quote: "Longitudinal stability is moderately negative with a full fly-by-wire digital control system. The system is quadruple redundant with three digital channels and one separately designed analog channel. Design independence between channels is pivotal in preventing fatal flaws simultaneously affecting several channels due to software misconceptions."[80]
^Quote: "The core of the enhanced capabilities of the RAFALE lies in a new Modular Data Processing Unit (MDPU). It is composed of up to 18 flight line-replaceable modules, each with a processing power 50 times higher than that of the 2084 XRI-type computer fitted on the early versions of Mirage 2000-5."[80]
^Quote: "SPECTRA provides all-weather reliable long-range detection, identification and location of threats, short response times and cutting-edge defensive measures based on combinations of jamming, decoying and evasive manoeuvres and on state-of-the-art technologies such as DRFM (Digital Radio Frequency Memory)signal processing."[80]
^Quote: "According to DGA, Areos provides day identification capabilities that are two-and-a-half times better than those of the Mirage F1CR's Presto "wet-film" system and 8 times better than those of the legacy SDS250 photo pod of the Super-Étendard."[104]
^Quote: "The Rafale was the clear winner of the SAF evaluation, with the Eurofighter second, but the Swiss government opted for the cheaper Gripen package."[418]
^"Rafale".WordReference.Archived from the original on 26 November 2015. Retrieved26 November 2015. "Gust of wind".WordReference.Archived from the original on 26 November 2015. Retrieved26 November 2015.
^Langenscheidt Taschenwörterbuch Englisch-Französisch, p. 471.
^"Projet de loi de finances pour 2014 : Défense : équipement des forces et excellence technologique des industries de défense" (in French). Senate of France. 21 November 2013.Archived from the original on 26 March 2014. Retrieved2 July 2014.Avant prise en compte du projet de LPM, le coût total du programme pour l'Etat était de 45,9 Mds €2013. Le coût unitaire (hors coût de développement) de 74 M€2013 pour le Rafale B (pour 110 avions) de 68,8 M€2013 pour le Rafale C (pour 118 avions) et de 79 M€2011 pour le Rafale M (pour 58 avions)." Translated: Before taking into account the draft Trademark Law, the total cost of the programme for the state was €45.9 billion 2013. Unit cost (excluding development costs) of €74M 2013 for the Rafale B (110 aircraft) €68.8M 2013 for the Rafale C (for 118 aircraft) and €79M 2011 for the Rafale M (58 aircraft).
^"The sheer power of multisensor data fusion". Dassault Aviation. Archived fromthe original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved20 January 2013.Implementation of the "multi-sensor data fusion" into the Rafale translates into accurate, reliable and strong tracks, uncluttered displays, reduced pilot workload, quicker pilot response, and eventually into increasedsituational awareness.
^Chaltiel, Pierre-Yves; Trouche, Jean-Marie; Bernard-Guelle, Christian.SPECTRA – Protection and avoidance system for the Rafale fighter aircraft fire control, "Nouvelle Revue d'Aeronautique et d'Astronautique." January–February 1997. pp. 23–33.
^ab"Nowhere to hide"(PDF).Fox Three.14. Rafale International: 12. December 2009. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 25 May 2013. Retrieved18 January 2013.
^"Rafale, the omnirole fighter"(PDF).Fox Three (14). Rafale International. December 2009.Archived(PDF) from the original on 24 October 2013. Retrieved5 January 2012.
^"Rafale : vers le standard F4".Dassault Aviation (Press release) (in French). 22 March 2017.Archived from the original on 13 April 2017. Retrieved24 November 2021.
^Desclaux, Jacques; Serre, Jacques, eds. (14–17 July 2003). "M88 – 2 E4: Advanced New Generation Engine for Rafale Multirole Fighter".AIAA/ICAS International Air and Space Symposium and Exposition: The Next 100 Years. Dayton, Ohio: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.ISBN978-1-56347-601-3.
^Monsonis, Guillem (14 May 2009)."Rafale: the doomed French bird".Institute for Defense Studies and Analysis.Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved20 January 2014.
^"2014 first half-year results"(PDF) (Press release). Dassault Aviation. 25 July 2014.Archived(PDF) from the original on 5 September 2014. Retrieved4 October 2014.
^Quisnel, Jean (2 July 2012)."Crash d'un Rafale en Méditerranée" [A Rafale's crash in the Mediterranean].Le Point (in French). Archived fromthe original on 23 October 2013. Retrieved1 June 2022.
"Rafale A Demonstrates Vertical Acceleration, Climb Performance".Aviation Week & Space Technology.125 (16). New York: McGraw-Hill:78–79. 20 October 1986.ISSN0005-2175.
Buttler, Tony (2000).British Secret Projects: Jet Fighters Since 1950. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing.ISBN978-1-85780-095-1.
Carbonel, Jean-Christophe (2016).French Secret Projects. Vol. 1: Post War Fighters. Manchester, UK: Crecy Publishing.ISBN978-1-91080-900-6.
Cook, Nick (1 November 1997). "Rafale sets new standards in digital assembly".Interavia Business & Technology. Aerospace Media Publishing:22–24.ISSN0983-1592.
Eden, Paul, ed. (2004).The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber Books.ISBN978-1-904687-84-9.
Fiszer, Michal (1 June 2005). "Storm warning: the Dassault Rafale is poised to become Europe's premier fighter-bomber".Journal of Electronic Defense.28 (6). Association of Old Crows:40–51.ISSN0192-429X.
Lenorovitz, Jeffrey (23 June 1986). "Rafale Serves as Testbed for French Systems".Aviation Week & Space Technology.124 (25). New York: McGraw-Hill: 79.ISSN0005-2175.
——— (5 November 1990). "Rafale Debut Opens Way for Flight Test Program".Aviation Week & Space Technology.133 (19). New York: McGraw-Hill:20–22.ISSN0005-2175.
Lorell, Mark; Hoffman, Donna (1989).The Use of Prototypes in Selected Foreign Fighter Aircraft Development Programs – Rafale, EAP, Lavi, and Gripen. RAND Corporation.ISBN0-8330-0970-2.
Sparaco, Pierre (18 November 1996). "France Seeks Early Export Orders".Aviation Week & Space Technology.145 (21). New York: McGraw-Hill: 29.ISSN0005-2175.
Svitak, Amy; Bruneau, Caroline (8–21 June 2015). "Fasionably Late".Aviation Week & Space Technology.177 (11). New York: McGraw-Hill:59–60.ISSN0005-2175.
Sweetman, Bill (1 November 2002). "Killer angels: France's Rafale has fire, but will glory remain a mirage?".Journal of Electronic Defense.25 (11). Association of Old Crows:44–48.ISSN0192-429X.
Williams, Mel, ed. (2002). "Dassault Rafale".Superfighters, The Next Generation of Combat Aircraft. London: AIRtime Publishing.ISBN978-1-880588-53-6.
Wertheim, Eric (2007).Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World: Their Ships, Aircraft, and Systems. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press.ISBN978-1-59114-955-2.
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_over_an_undisclosed_130317-F-BY961-185.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
