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Dasa is a Sanskrit word found in ancient Indian texts such as theRigveda,Pali canon, and theArthashastra.[1] The term may mean "slave", "enemy" or "servant," butDasa orDas can also have the following connotations: "slave of god", "devotee," "votary" or "one who has surrendered to God." Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "slave" of a revered person or a particular deity.[2][3]
Dasa, in some contexts, is also related todasyu andasura, which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces," "slave," "servant," or "barbarian," depending on the context in which the word is used.[4][5]
Dāsa first appears inVedic texts from the second millennium BCE.[4] There is no consensus on its origins.
Karl Heinrich Tzschucke in 1806, in his translations of the Roman geographerPomponius Mela, noted etymological and phonological parallels betweendasa and the ethnonyms of theDahae – Persian داها; SanskritDasa; LatinDahae; Greek ΔάοιDaoi, Δάαι, ΔᾶαιDaai and ΔάσαιDasai – a people who lived on the south-eastern shores of theCaspian Sea in ancient times (and from whom modernDehestan/Dehistan takes its name).[6]
Monier Monier-Williams in 1899, stated that the meaning ofdasa varies contextually and means "mysterious forces", "savages", "barbarians" or "demons" in the earliest layer of Vedic literature – in other contexts, is a self-effacing way to refer oneself as "worshipper" or "devotee aiming to honor a deity", or a "servant of god".[7] In later Indian literature, according to Monier-Williams, usage ofdasa is used to refer to "a knowing man, or a knower of the universal spirit".[8] In the latter sense,dāsa is masculine, while the feminine equivalent isdāsi.[7] Some early 20th century translators, such asP. T. Srinivasa Iyengar (1912), translatedasa as "slave".[9]
Kangle in 1960,[1] and others[10] suggest that, depending on the context,dasa may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit wordsdasa ordasyu suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the worddasa mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."[4] In some contexts, the worddasa may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted theVedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.[4]
In Pali texts, the termdasa is mentioned to denote a slave.[6]Dasa inBuddhist texts can mean "servant".[3] InPali language, it is used as suffix in Buddhist texts, whereAmaya-dasa was translated by Davids and Stede in 1925, as a "slave by birth",[11]Kila-dasa translated as a "bought slave",[12] andAmata-dasa as "one who seesAmata (Sanskrit:Amrita, nectar of immortality) orNibbana (Sanskrit:Nirvana)".[13]
According toDr. Bhimrao Ambedkar, regarding the Dasas, the question is whether there is any connection between theAzhi-Dahaka of theZend Avesta. The name Azhi-Dahaka is a compound name which consists of two parts. Azhi means serpent or dragon and Dahaka comes from the root "Dah" meaning "to sting, to do harm"[14]
Michael Witzel compares the etymological root ofdasa to words from otherIndo-European languages that imply "enemy, foreigner", including the Avestandahåka anddŋha, Latindahi and Greekdaai.[15]
Asko Parpola in 2015, has proposed thatdasa is related to the ancientIranian andproto-Saka worddaha, which means "man".[16] This is contrasted witharya, the word for "man" used by, and of, Indo-Iranian people from Central Asia.[16]
Based on the Arya-Dasa conflict described in Rigvedic text, scholars have tried to identify the Dasa as a population in South India and the Caucasus.[citation needed]
Max Müller proposed thatdasa referred to indigenous peoples living in South Asia before thearrival of theAryans.[17]
Michael Witzel in his review ofIndo-Iranian texts in 1995, states thatdasa in the Vedic literature represented a NorthIranian tribe, who were enemies of the Vedic Aryans, anddas-yu meant "enemy, foreigner." He notes that these enemies could have apparently become slaves if captured.[18]
Asko Parpola states thatdasa referred only to Central Asian peoples.[19] Vedic texts that include prayers for the defeat of thedasa as an "enemy people", according to Parpola, possibly refers to people from the so-calledBactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), who spoke a different language and opposed Aryan religious practices.[19] Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory. Among the evidences cited were recent BMAC excavation results where forts in circular shapes were found, the shape described in the early parts of the Rigveda as the enemy forts of Indra. He also found that Rigvedic words with vocalicṛ in their first syllable - for instance,ṛbīsa- “oven” orśṛgāla- “jackal” - are likely loanwords from the unknown BMAC language.[20]
Authors likeSri Aurobindo believe that words like Dasa are used in the Rig Veda symbolically and should be interpreted spiritually, and that Dasa does not refer to human beings, but rather to demons who hinder the spiritual attainment of the mystic. Many Dasas are purely mythical and can only refer to demons. There is for example a Dasa called Urana with 99 arms (RV II.14.4), and a Dasa with six eyes and three heads in the Rig Veda.[21]
Aurobindo[22] commented that in the RV III.34 hymn, where the word Aryavarna occurs, Indra is described as the increaser of the thoughts of his followers: "the shining hue of these thoughts,sukram varnam asam, is evidently the same as that sukra or sveta Aryan hue which is mentioned in verse 9.Indra carries forward or increases the "colour" of these thoughts beyond the opposition of the Panis, pra varnam atiracchukram; in doing so he slays the Dasyus and protects or fosters and increases the Aryan "colour",sahatvi dasyun pra aryam varnam avat."[23]
According to Aurobindo (The Secret of the Veda), RV 5.14.4 is a key for understanding the character of the Dasyus:
Aurobindo explains that in this verse the struggle between light and darkness, truth and falsehood, divine and undivine is described.[24]
Dasa and related words such asDasyu are found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the worddasa mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."[4] In other contexts, the worddasa refers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted theVedic beliefs.[4][26]
A. A. Macdonell andA. B. Keith in 1912 remarked that, "The great difference between the Dasyus and the Aryans was their religion... It is significant that constant reference is made to difference in religion between Aryans and Dasa and Dasyu."[27][28]
Rig Veda 10.22.8 describes Dasyus as "savages" who have no laws, different observances, a-karman (who do not perform rites) and who act against a person without knowing the person.[5]
अकर्मादस्युरभि नो अमन्तुरन्यव्रतो अमानुषः ।
त्वं तस्यामित्रहन्वधर्दासस्य दम्भय ॥८॥[29]
Around us is theDasyu, riteless, void of sense, inhuman, keeping alien laws.
Baffle, thou Slayer of the foe, the weapon which thisDasa wields.
– Translated by Ralph Griffith[30]
TheDasyu practising no religious rites, not knowing us thoroughly, following other observances, obeying no human laws,
Baffle, destroyer of enemies [Indra], the weapon of thatDasa.
– Translated byH. H. Wilson[31]
— Rigveda 10.22.8
Within the Vedic texts,Dasa is the word used to describe supernatural demonic creatures with many eyes and many heads. This has led scholars to interpret that the wordDasa in Vedic times meant evil, supernatural, destructive forces. For example, Rigveda in hymn 10.99.6 states,[32]
स इद्दासं तुवीरवं पतिर्दन्षळक्षं त्रिशीर्षाणं दमन्यत् ।
अस्य त्रितो न्वोजसा वृधानो विपा वराहमयोअग्रया हन् ॥६॥
The sovereignIndra attacking him overcame the loud shouting, six eyed, three headedDasa,
Trita invigorated by his strength, smote the cloud with his iron-tipped finger.
— Rigveda 10.99.6, translated by H. H. Wilson[33]
Dasa is also used in Vedic literature, in some contexts, to refer to "servants", a few translate this as "slaves", but the verses do not describe how the Vedic society treats or mistreats the servants.R. S. Sharma, in his 1958 book, states that the only word which could possibly mean slave inRigveda isdāsa, and this sense of use is traceable to four verses out of 10,600 verses in Rigveda, namely 1.92.8, 1.158.5, 10.62.10 and 8.56.3.[34] The translation of worddasa to servant or slave varies by scholars.[4] HH Wilson, for example, translatesDasa in Rigvedic instances identified by Sharma, as servant rather than slave,[35] as in verse 10.62.10:[36]
— Rigveda 10.62.10, Translated by HH Wilson[35]
R. S. Sharma translatesdasi in a Vedic eraUpanishads as "maid-servant".[38]
Hermann Oldenberg states that no distinction between historical events and mythology existed for the Vedic poets. For them, the conflict between the Aryans and Dasas extended into the realms of gods and demons with the hostile demon being on the same level as the hated and despised savages.[39]
Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin suggestIndo-Aryans were not the only inhabitants of the region when they arrived toSapta-Sindhava or land of seven rivers and their encounter with Dasyu was not entirely peaceful.[40]
Ram Sharan Sharma states that theRig-Vedic society was primarily organized on basis of tribe, kin and lineage. The "Aryan" tribes mentioned by theRig Veda therefore may not have been of the same ethnicity, but may have been united by a common language and way of life. He states that while it has been argued that Dasyu and Dasa were not non-Aryans, it is more true in the case of the latter. Further the Dasas are said to be organized into tribes calledviś, a term used for Vedic people or tribes. The godIndra is said to be the conqueror of Dasas, who appear mostly human. There are more references to the destruction of Dasyus by Indra instead of Dasas. He is said to have protected the Aryan varna by killing them.[41] The Aryans also fought between themselves. The godManyu is invoked to overcome both Aryans and Dasyus. Indra is asked to fight against the godless Dasyus and Aryans, who are the enemies of his followers. (X, 88, 3 & XX, 36, 10).[42]
The fight between Aryans and their enemies consisted mostly of fortresses and walled settlements of the latter. Both Dasas and Dasyus were in the possession of them. Sharma states that this reminds us of the later discovery of fortifications ofHarappan settlements, though there is no clear archaeological evidence of mass-scale confrontation between Aryans and Harappans. He adds that the Aryans seemed to be attracted to their wealth over which regular warfare took place. The worshiper in the Rig Veda expects that those who offered nooblation should be killed and their wealth be divided (I, 176, 4). However, it was the cattle which held the most importance to Aryans who were cattle-herders. For example, it is argued thatKikatas didn't need cows because they made no use of milk products in sacrifice.[43]
Sacrifice played an important part in Aryan way of life, however the Dasyus or Dasas did not offer sacrifices. An entire passage in the seventh book of Rig Veda uses adjectives such asakratün,aśraddhān andayajñān applied to Dasyus emphasizes their non-sacrificing character.Indra is asked to discriminate between them and the sacrificing Aryas. Sharma states that the wordanindra (without Indra) may refer to Dasyus, Dasa and Aryan dissenters. Per the Aryan view, the Dasyus practiced black magic andAtharva Veda refers to them as evil spirits to be scared away from the sacrifice. The Atharva Veda states that the god-blaspheming Dasyus are to be offered as victims. The Dasyus are believed to be treacherous, not practicing Aryan observances, and are hardly human.[44]
Tony Ballantyne states thatRig Veda depicts the cultural differences between the Aryan invaders and non-Aryans of Indus valley. He states that although the inter-Aryan conflict is prominent in its hymns, a cultural opposition is drawn between Aryans and the indigenous people of North India. According to him, it depicts the indigenous tribes such as thePani andDasas as godless, savage and untrustworthy. Panis are cattle thieves who seek to deprive Aryans of them. He states Dasas were savages, whose godless society, darker complexion and different language were culturally different from Aryans. They are called barbarians (rakshas), those without fire (anagnitra) and flesh-eaters (kravyad). The Aryas were on the other hand presented as noble people protected by their godsAgni andIndra. He adds that their names were extended beyond them to denote savage and barbarian people in general. He concurs that this continued into later Sanskritic tradition wheredasa came to mean a slave whileArya meant noble.[45]
Asko Parpola identifies the Dasyus with theBactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) and states that termDasyu might originate from the wordDaha which was originally a noun meaning a "male person, man or a hero", and is connected to theOld Iranian language worddahyu. He identifiesTripura with the BMAC settlements like Dashly-3 in northern Afghanistan which had forts with three concentric walls, a tradition which survived inBactria untilAchaemenid times. In addition, he states that the description of Rig Veda about the Aryans always losing to the Asuras who had forts in the earlier part of the text was due to them encountering the forts of the BMAC. The Rig Veda also describes the opulence and power of the Dasyus, who defend their cattle with sharp weapons, horses and chariots. Parpola identifies with the riches of the BMAC and their finely decorated weapons. In addition, the statement of Rig Veda about Dasas worshipping Asuras who were later worshipped inZorastarianism, with the foremost beingVaruna who had a counterpart inAhura Mazda, andMitra-Varuna corresponding toMithra-Ahura. Based on Rig Vedic hymns, Parpola states that Aryans adopted some of the Asuras as gods to please their new Dasyu subjects, and the attestation of both Indra and Varuna in the Mitanni oath of 1380 BCE shows that amalgamation of Aryans and Dasas happened before the former migrated to South Asia.[46]
The three words Dasa, Dasyu and Asura are used interchangeably in almost identical verses that are repeated in different Vedic texts, such as the Rig Veda, the Saunaka recension ofAtharva Veda, thePaippaladaSamhita of theAtharva Veda and theBrahmanas text in various Vedas. Such comparative study has led scholars to interpretDasa andDasyu may have been a synonym ofAsura (demons or evil forces, sometimes simply lords with special knowledge and magical powers) of later Vedic texts.[47][need quotation to verify]
Sharma states that the worddasa occurs inAitareya andGopatha Brahmanas, but not in the sense of a slave.[38]
Kautilya'sArthashastra dedicates the thirteenth chapter ondasas, in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from theMaurya Empire period (4th century BCE), has been translated by several authors. Shamasastry's translation in 1915,[48] Kangle's translation in the 1960s[49] and Rangarajan's translation in 1987[50] all mapdasa as slave. However, Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted todasa byKautilya, such as the right to the same wage as a free labourer and the right to freedom on payment of an amount, distinguish this form of slavery from that of contemporaryGreece.[51]Edmund Leach points out that theDasa was the antithesis of the concept ofArya. As the latter term evolved through successive meanings, so didDasa: from "indigenous inhabitant" to "serf," "tied servant," and finally "chattel slave." He suggests the term "unfreedom" to cover all these meanings.[52]
According toArthashastra, anyone who had been found guilty ofnishpatitah (Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime)[53] may mortgage oneself to becomedasa for someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ thedasa for money and privileges.[48][51]
According to Arthashastra, it was illegal to force adasa (slave) to do certain types of work, to hurt or abuse him, or to force sex on a femaledasa.[48]
Employing a slave (dasa) to carry the dead or to sweep ordure, urine or the leavings of food; forcing a slave to be naked; hurting or abusing him; or violating the chastity of a female slave shall cause the forfeiture of the value paid for him or her. Violation of the chastity shall at once earn their liberty for them.
— Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry[48]
When a master has connection (sex) with a pledged female slave (dasi) against her will, he shall be punished. When a man commits or helps another to commit rape with a female slave pledged to him, he shall not only forfeit the purchase value, but also pay a certain amount of money to her and a fine of twice the amount to the government.
— Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry[48]
A slave (dasa) shall be entitled to enjoy not only whatever he has earned without prejudice to his master's work, but also the inheritance he has received from his father.
— Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry[48]
Words related todasa are found in early Buddhist texts, such asdāso na pabbājetabbo, which Davids and Stede translate as "the slave cannot become aBhikkhu".[54] This restriction on who could become a Buddhist monastic is found inVinaya Pitakam i.93,Digha Nikaya,Majjhima Nikāya,TibetanBhiksukarmavakya andUpasampadajnapti.[54][55]
In Buddhist scriptures, slavery is a backdrop to the narratives, anddasas (slaves) were among the donations to the monastic community. Various terms were used, like "bondsmen," "proper slave," and "proper bondman", and individuals were treated as property and could be donated as such to monks and monasteries. In variousVinayas,The Buddha permits the offering and utilization of household servants and slaves, along with land, mats, livestock, tools, and medicinal items. At times, slaves were tasked with carrying out actions that were explicitly prohibited for monks[56]
InTamildasa is commonly used to refer to devotees ofVishnu orKrishna.[57]
InGaudiya Vaishnavism, devotees often usedasa (meaning slave of Krishna) as part of their names, as inHari Dasa.[58]
Dasa or Das is also a surname or middle name found amongHindus andSikhs, typically in northern half of India, where it literally means "votary, devotee, slave of God."[59] For example,Mohandas Gandhi's first name, Mohandas, means slave of Mohan orKrishna. Also, the name Surdas means slave of Sur orDeva. In the past, many saints of theBhakti movement added it to their names, signifying their total devotion or surrender to God.[58]
Dasa and related terms have been examined by several scholars.[60] While the termsDasa andDasyu have a negative meaning in Sanskrit, their Iranian counterpartsDaha andDahyu have preserved their positive (or neutral) meaning. This is similar to the Sanskrit termsDeva (a "positive" term) andAsura (a "negative" term). The Iranian counterparts of these terms (Daeva andAhura) have opposite meanings.
Asko Parpola states the originalDasa is related to theOld Persian wordDaha which also means "man", but refers specifically to a regional ethnic minority of Persia.[61] Parpola contrastsDaha withArya, stating that the latter also referred to "man" but specifically to the incomingIndo-Iranians from Central Asia. The Vedic text that include prayers to help defeat the "Dasa as enemy people", states Parpola, may refer to the wars of the Indo-Iranians against the bearers of theBactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) culture. The latter spoke a different language and opposed Indo-Iranian religious practices.[61] Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory, but his theory is controversial.[62]