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Dargwa language

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Northeast Caucasian language

"Dargi" redirects here. For places in Iran, seeDargi, Iran.

Dargwa
дарган мезdargan mezدارگان مەڞ
Native to	North Caucasus
Region	Dagestan
Ethnicity	630,000Dargins (2020 census)^[1]
Native speakers	590,000 (2020 census, all Dargin languages)^[2]
Language family	Northeast Caucasian Dargin North-Central North Dargwa Aqusha andUrakhi Dargwa
Writing system	Cyrillic
Official status
Official language in	Russia Dagestan
Language codes
ISO 639-2	`dar`
ISO 639-3	`dar` (alsoDargin languages)
Glottolog	`darg1241` `sout3261`
Map of all Dargin varieties

Dargwa (дарган мез,dargan mez) is aNortheast Caucasian language spoken by theDargin people in theRussian republicDagestan. This article discusses the literary dialect of thedialect continuum constituting theDargin languages.^[3] It is based on theAqusha andUrakhi dialects of Northern Dargin.

Classification

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Dargwa is part of a Northeast Caucasian dialect continuum, theDargin languages. The other languages in this dialect continuum (such asKajtak,Kubachi,Itsari, andChirag) are often considered variants of Dargwa, but also sometimes considered separate languages by certain scholars. Korjakov (2012) concludes that Southwestern Dargwa is closer to Kajtak than it is to North-Central Dargwa.^[4]

Geographic distribution

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According to the2002 Census, there are 429,347 speakers of Dargwa proper in Dagestan, 7,188 in neighbouringKalmykia, 1,620 inKhanty–Mansi AO, 680 inChechnya, and hundreds more in other parts of Russia. Figures for the Lakh dialect spoken in central Dagestan^[5] are 142,523 in Dagestan, 1,504 inKabardino-Balkaria, 708 in Khanty–Mansi.^{[verification needed]}

Phonology

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This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(November 2021)

Consonants

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Like otherlanguages of the Caucasus, Dargwa is noted for its largeconsonant inventory, which includes over 40phonemes (distinct sounds), though the exact number varies by dialect.Voicing,glottalization (asejectives),fortition (which surfaces asgemination), andfrication are some of the distinctfeatures of consonants in Dargwa. The following chart is of the literary dialect of Dargwa.

		Labial	Dental		Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal/ Epiglottal	Glottal
		Labial	plain	sib.	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal/ Epiglottal	Glottal
Nasal		m	n
Plosive/ Affricate	voiceless	p	t	t͡s	t͡ʃ		k	q		ʔ
	ejective	pʼ	tʼ	t͡sʼ	t͡ʃʼ		kʼ	qʼ
	voiced	b	d	d͡z	d͡ʒ		ɡ	ɢ	ʡ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s		ʃ	ç	x¹	χ	ʜ
Fricative	voiced	v	z		ʒ		ɣ	ʁ	ʢ	ɦ
Trill					r
Approximant		w	l			j

Mainly heard as an allophone of/ç/.

The source is rather ambiguous in its using the term "laryngeal" for a presumed column of consonants that includes both a "voiced" and a "glottalized" plosive. A voicedglottal plosive cannot be made, because theglottis needs to be closed, and an ejective consonant requires an additional closure further up the vocal tract. Pending clarification, this row has been transcribed here as anepiglottal column and a glottal stop, both found in many other East Caucasian languages.

Vowels

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	Front	Central	Back
Close	i		u
Mid	e	ə
Open		a

The Dargwa language features five vowel sounds /i, e, ə, a, u/. Vowels /i, u, a/ can be pharyngealized as /iˤ, uˤ, aˤ/. There is also a pharyngealized mid-back vowel [oˤ] as a realization of /uˤ/, occurring in the Mehweb variety.^[6]

Orthography

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Main article:Dargin writing

The current Dargwa alphabet is based onCyrillic as follows:

А а	Б б	В в	Г г	Гъ гъ	Гь гь	Гӏ гӏ	Д д	Е е	Ё ё	Ж ж	З з
И и	Й й	К к	Къ къ	Кь кь	Кӏ кӏ	Л л	М м	Н н	О о	П п	Пӏ пӏ
Р р	С с	Т т	Тӏ тӏ	У у	Ф ф	Х х	Хъ хъ	Хь хь	Хӏ хӏ	Ц ц	Цӏ цӏ
Ч ч	Чӏ чӏ	Ш ш	Щ щ	Ъ ъ	Ы ы	Ь ь	Э э	Ю ю	Я я

The first Dargin alphabet was created byPeter von Uslar in the late 19th century, published in the grammarХюркилинский язык for theUrakhi dialect of Dargwa.

The Latin alphabet of the 1920s is not entirely supported by Unicode, but is approximately:^[7]

a ʙ c ç ꞓ d e ə f g ǥ ƣ h ħ ⱨ i j k ⱪ l m n o p ᶈ q ꝗ r s ꟍ ş t ţ u v w x ҳ ӿ z ƶ ⱬ ƶ̧

(The letters transcribed hereⱨ ⱪ ᶈ ҳ ⱬ might have cedillas instead of hooks; the printing in sources is not clear.)

Writing system comparison chart

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Compiled from:^[8]

Modern Cyrillic	Latin c. 1930	Uslar	Arabic (1920—1928)	Arabic (before 1920)	IPA
А а	A a	а	ا ,آ	آ	a
Б б	B b	б	ب		b
В в	V v	ԝ	و		w
Г г	G g	г	گ	ڮ	g
Гъ гъ	Ƣ ƣ	ӷ	غ		ʁ
Гь гь	H h	һ	ھ	ﻬ	h
ГӀ гӀ	Ⱨ ⱨ	ꜧ	ع		ʕ
Д д	D d	д	د		d
Е е	E e, je	e	اە	-	e, je
Ё ё	-				ɵ
Ж ж	Ƶ ƶ	ж	ژ	ج	ʒ
З з	Z z	з	ز		z
И и	I i	i	اى	-	i
Й й	J j	j	ى	ي	j
К к	K k	кᷱ	ک		k
Къ къ	Q q	к	ڠ	ق	q:
Кь кь	Ꝗ ꝗ	q	ق		qʼ
КӀ кӀ	Ⱪ ⱪ	қ	گ		kʼ
Л л	L l	л	ل		l
М м	M m	м	م		m
Н н	N n	н	ن		n
О о	O o	о	او	-	o
П п	P p	п	پ	ف	p
ПӀ пӀ^{[comm. 1]}	^{[comm. 2]}	ԥ	ڢ	ب	pʼ
Р р	R r	р	ر		r
С с	S s	с	س		s
Т т	T t	т	ت		t
ТӀ тӀ	T̨ t̨	ҭ	ط		t’
У у	U u	у	او	و	u
Ф ф	F f	-	ف		f
Х х	X x	х	خ		χ
Хъ хъ	Ӿ ӿ	k	څ	ق	q
Хь хь	Ҳ ҳ		ؼ		x:
ХӀ хӀ	Ħ ħ		ح		ħ
Ц ц	Ꞩ ꞩ	ц	ڝ	ژ	ʦ
ЦӀ цӀ	Ⱬ ⱬ	წ	ڗ	ژ	ʦ’
Ч ч	C c	ч	چ		tʃ
ЧӀ чӀ	Ç ç	ჭ	ج	چ	ʧ’
Ш ш	Ş ş	ш	ش		ʃ
Щ щ	şş	-			ʃː
Ъ ъ	-		ء	-	ʔ
Ы ы	-				ɨ
Ь ь	-
Э э	E e	-	اه	-	e
Ю ю	ju	-			ju
Я я	Ә ә, ja	ӕ	أ	-	ja
-	Ⱬ̵ ⱬ̵	ђ	ڞ	-	t͡s
-	Ӡ ӡ	-
-	є^{[comm. 2]}	-	ڃ	چ
-	g̵^{[comm. 2]}	гᷱ	ݢ	-

Grammar

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Assertive (finite) forms^[9]
TAM CATEGORY	MEANING	ASPECT	MODIFIER	PREDICATIVE MARKER	NEGATION	EXAMPLE
DERIVED FROM THE PROGRESSIVE STEM ( BASIC STEM + -a)
Present	1. all types of present situations including actual and habitual situations, 2. historic present, 3. close future: the speaker‘s intention	IPF	[-ti]	PERSON / PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b)	reduplication or negative auxiliary	anwar-ri kaRar luk’-a–ca=b (Anwar is writing a letter)
Past Progressive	a progressive situation in the past	IPF	-ti	PAST (–di)	reduplication or negative auxiliary	it uč’-a-Ti–di (He was reading)
DERIVED FROM THE PRETERITE STEM ( BASIC STEM + -ib/-ub/-ur/-un):
Aorist	any completed action in the past	PF	-	PERSON (–da/–di)	negative auxiliary
Imperfect	unspecified imperfective meaning in the past (both durative and multiplicative situations)	IPF	-	PERSON (–da/–di)		hin ha.ruq-ib
Perfect	perfect (a completed action whose results are still presently actual)	PF	-	PERSON /PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b)		jabu-l hin d=er{-ib–ca=d (The horse has drunk up the whole of the water)
Pluperfect	a completed action in the past preceding another past action	PF	-li	PAST (–di)
*Evidential Present	1. inference from non-trivial results of a situation that still exist at the moment of speech 2. subject resultative:	IPF	-	PERSON/PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b)		jabu hinni b=u{-ib–ca=b (The horse has had a drink of water)
*Evidential Past	1. inference from non-trivial results that existed in the past subject resultative in the past	IPF	-li	PAST (–di)
Resultative	resultative (state of the patient)	-	-li	PERSON /PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b)		jabu mura-l b=uK-un-ni–ca=b 'The horse has eaten its fill of hay.‘
Experiential	experiential	-	-ci	PERSON /PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b)		ni}a-la }a=b b=uZ-ib-ti–ca=b d=eqel juz-i d=elk'-un-ti ̳There have been in our village those who had written many books'.
Habitual Past	a habitual action in the past	IPF	-a-d-i, -a-T-i, -iri/-ini or -aj	no separable predicative morphemes	reduplication	harzamina b=urs-iri di-la waba-l 'My mother used to tell (this story).‘
DERIVED FROM THE OBLIGATIVE STEM ( BASIC STEM + -an):
Future	all types of future situations	IPF	-	PERSON/FUTURE(–da/–di/-ni)	negative auxiliary
Obligative Present	a situation that the speaker believes necessary to be realized	IPF *	-	PERSON /PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b)	negative auxiliary
Obligative Past	an irreal situation that the speaker believes necessary to have been realized in the past	IPF *	-	PAST (–di)	negative auxiliary
DERIVED FROM THE HYPOTHETICAL STEM ( BASIC STEM + -iZ-):
Hypothetical Present	a possible action in the future	-	-	PERSON(–da/–di)	reduplication or negative auxiliary
Hypothetical Past	a past situation that did not take place, but is treated by the speaker as having been possible under certain conditions	-	-	PAST (–di)	reduplication or negative auxiliary
Irrealis	used in the apodosis of the irreal conditional clauses	IPF	-	PAST (–di)	reduplication

References

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^1. НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ СОСТАВ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ
^Том 5. «Национальный состав и владение языками». Таблица 7. Население наиболее многочисленных национальностей по родному языку
^Forker D (2019).A grammar of Sanzhi Dargwa(pdf). Berlin: Language Science Press.doi:10.5281/zenodo.3339225.ISBN 978-3-96110-197-9.
^Korjakov, Yu. B. (2012).Лексикостатичексая классификация Даргинских Языков (Paper presented at the Moscow Seminar on Nakh-Dagestanian lanlanguages organized by Nina Sumbatova) (in Russian).
^Echols, John (Jan–Mar 1952). "Lakkische Studien by Karl Bouda".Language.28 (1). Linguistic Society of America: 159.doi:10.2307/410010.JSTOR 410010.
^Daniel, Michael; Dobrushina, Nina; Ganenkov, Dmitry (2019).The Mehweb language: Essays on phonology, morphology and syntax. Berlin: Language Science Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
^"НЭБ - Национальная электронная библиотека".
^А. А. Исаев (1970). "Социологический сборник".О формировании и развитии письменности народов Дагестана. Махачкала. pp. 173–232.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Nina R. Sumbatova, Rasul Osmanovič Mutalov. "A Grammar of Icari Dargwa". Lincom GmbH, 2003

Notes

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^Introduced in the 1960s
^^a ^b ^cExcluded in 1932

Bibliography

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Z. G. Abdullaev:Darginskij jazyk (3 Vol.). Moskau 1993. (in Russian)
Z. G. Abdullaev:Darginskij jazykArchived 2006-12-07 at theWayback Machine. In:Jazyki narodov SSSR. Vol. 4. Moskau 1967. (in Russian)
Karl Bouda:Die darginische Schriftsprache. (=Beiträge zur kaukasischen und sibirischen Sprachwissenschaft. Vol. 4). Leipzig 1937.
Tb (2019).Daniel, Michael; Dobrushina, Nina; Ganenkov, Dmitry (eds.).The Mehweb language: Essays on phonology, morphology and syntax. Berlin: Language Science Press.doi:10.5281/zenodo.3374730.ISBN 978-3-96110-208-2.
van den Berg, Helma (2001).Dargi folktales. Oral stories from the Caucasus. With an introduction to Dargi Grammar. Leiden: University of Leiden.ISBN 978-90-5789-066-6.

External links

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Dargwa language test ofWikipedia atWikimedia Incubator

An online dictionary of Sanzhi Dargwa (in Dictionaria), by Diana Forker
Appendix:Cyrillic script
Dargin language(in Russian)
Consonant Systems of the North-East Caucasian Languages
Dargwa basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
Sanzhi Dargwa DoReCo corpus compiled by Diana Forker and Nils Norman Schiborr. Audio recordings of narrative texts with transcriptions time-aligned at the phone level, translations, and - for some texts - time-aligned morphological annotations.

v t e Languages of Russia
Federal language	Russian
State languages of federal subjects	Abaza Adyghe Aghul Altai Northern Altai Southern Altai Avar Azerbaijani Bashkir Buryat Chechen Chuvash Crimean Tatar Dargwa Ingush Kabardian Kalmyk Karachay-Balkar Khakas Komi Kumyk Lak Lezgin Mari Hill Meadow Mordvin Erzya Moksha Nogai Ossetian Rutul Yakut/Sakha Tabasaran Tat Tatar Tsakhur Tuvan Udmurt Ukrainian
Languages with official status	Chukchi Dolgan Even Evenki Finnish Karelian Kazakh Khanty Northern Khanty Southern Khanty Eastern Khanty Komi-Permyak Mansi Northern Mansi Western Mansi Eastern Mansi Southern Mansi Nenets Selkup Veps Yukaghir Northern Yukaghir Southern Yukaghir
Scripts	Cyrillic¹ Cyrillic Braille Latin script² Mongolian script (Buryat script,Kalmyk script)²
¹ In Russia, the Cyrillic alphabet is officially supported.² For other, non-Cyrillic alphabets, separate federal laws are required. Languages of Russia Wikipedia in languages of Russia Mass media by language of Russia

North Caucasian languages

The proposedNorth Caucasian language family comprises theNortheast andNorthwest Caucasian language families.

Northwest
(Pontic)

Abazgi
- Abaza
- Abkhaz
  - Bzyb
Chakobsa
Circassian
- Adyghe
  - Black Sea coast
    - Natukhaj
    - Shapsug
      - Hakuchi
      - Northern
        Kfar Kama
  - Kuban River
- Kabardian
  - Besleney
Hattic (proposed)
Ubykh

Northeast
(Caspian)

Avar–Andic

Andic
- Andi
- Akhvakh
- Bagvalal–Tindi
- Botlix–Godoberi
- Chamalal
- Karata
  - Tukita
Avar

Dargic

Chirag
North-Central	Mehweb Gapshima–Butri [lez] Muira [ru] Tsudaqar–Usisha North Dargwa Aqusha Literary Dargwa Murego–Gubden [uk] Kadar Mugi [ru] Upper Mulebki Urakhi
Southern	Ashti–Kubachi Sanzhi–Itsari Amuzgi–Shiri [ru] Sanakari–Chakhrizhi Southwestern Dargwa Sirhwa [lez;uk] Tanti Upper Vurqni [ru]
Kaitag–Shari	Kaitag Shari

Tsezic

Bezhta–Hunzib–Khwarshi
- Inkhoqwari
Hinukh–Tsez

Lezgic

Archi

Samur

Eastern	Aghul Lezgian Tabasaran Udi Caucasian Albanian
Southern	Budukh Kryts
Western	Rutul Tsakhur

Nakh

Other

Italics indicateextinct languages

Languages of the Caucasus

Caucasian
(areal)

South
(Kartvelian)

Northeast
(Caspian)

Avar–Andic

Andic
- Andi
- Akhvakh
- Bagvalal–Tindi
- Botlikh–Godoberi
- Chamalal
- Karata
  - Tukita
Avar

Dargin

Chirag
North-Central	Mehweb Gapshima Muira [ru] Tsudaqar–Usisha–Butri North Dargwa Aqusha Literary Dargwa Murego–Gubden [uk] Kadar Mugi [ru] Upper Mulebki Urakhi
Southern	Ashti–Kubachi Sanzhi–Itsari Amuzgi–Shiri [ru] Sanakari–Chakhrizhi Southwestern Dargwa Sirhwa [lez;uk] Tanti Upper Vurqni [ru]
Kaitag–Shari	Kaitag Shari

Lezgic

Archi
Samur
- Eastern
- Southern
  - Budukh
  - Kryts
    - Jek
- Western
  - Rutul
  - Tsakhur
- Udi
  - Caucasian Albanian

Nakh

Tsezic (Didoic)

Bezhta–Hunzib–Khwarshi
Hinukh–Tsez

Others

Northwest
(Pontic)

Indo-
European

Iranian	Cimmerian Kurdish Kurmanji Ossetian Alanic Persian Talysh Kilit Tat Judeo-Tat
Slavic	Belarusian Russian Ukrainian
Others	Armenian Classical Armenian Middle Armenian Eastern Western Zok German Pontic Greek