Danish sculpture as a nationally recognized art form can be traced back to 1752 whenJacques Saly was commissioned to execute a statue of KingFrederick V of Denmark on horseback. WhileBertel Thorvaldsen was undoubtedly the country's most prominent contributor, many other players have produced fine work, especially in the areas ofNeoclassicism,Realism, and inHistoricism, the latter resulting from growing consciousness of a national identity. More recently, Danish sculpture has been inspired by European trends, especially those from Paris, includingSurrealism andModernism.[1]
The earliest traces of sculpture in Denmark date from the 12th century when a stonemason known asHorder was active in the east ofJutland and on the island ofFunen decorating churches, especially doors and fonts.[2] From roughly the same period, there are sculpted figures in the granite reliefs depicting theRemoval from the Cross in thetympanum above the so-called Cat's Head Door ofRibe Cathedral.[3] In the early 16th century, sculpted altarpieces and pulpits were produced by German artists such asClaus Berg working inOdense Cathedral andHans Brüggemann who designed the unpainted altarpiece inSchleswig Cathedral. However theReformation in 1536 brought such decorative work to an almost total stop.[4] During the Renaissance period, sculptors from abroad were the source of work in Denmark. TheFlemish sculptorCornelis Floris fromAntwerp produced tombs forHerluf Trolle andBirgitte Gøye (1566–68) inHerlufsholm and forChristian III (1569–79) inRoskilde Cathedral.Gert van Groningen was one of the leading Dutch artists to participate in the design ofKronborg's main entrance. Another Flemish sculptor active towards the end of the 16th century in Denmark wasGert van Egen who designedFrederik II's tomb in Roskilde Cathedral.[5] Similarly, in the 17th century, it wasAdriaen de Vries who designed the Neptunus Fountain for Frederiksberg Palace (1615–22) although it was later taken by the Swedes as a prize of war and now stands beforeDrottningholm Palace.[6]
The development of Danish sculpture was greatly influenced in the mid-18th century by the French sculptorJacques Saly (1717–1776), who was invited by the Danish government in 1752 to create a statue of King Frederik V.[7] Shortly after theRoyal Danish Academy of Fine Arts was founded in March 1754, Saly was appointed as its director, exerting considerable influence on the workings of the institution. After preparing a number of miniature and full-sized models, Saly finally completed his equestrian statue in 1768 as a bronze casting in theNeoclassical style but it was not unveiled in the courtyard atAmalienborg Palace until August 1771, five years after the king's death in 1766.[8] It has been called one of the finest equestrian statues in Europe.[7]
Johannes Wiedewelt (1731–1802) was one of the primary figures responsible for introducing Neoclassicism to Denmark, inspired by stays in Paris and Rome which were facilitated by travel stipends from the newly established Academy. Soon after his return to Denmark in 1758, he was commissioned to sculpt a memorial monument to the long deceasedKing Christian VI by his widowed wife,Sophie Magdalene. Completed in 1768, the marble monument was not installed inRoskilde Cathedral until 1777. The sarcophagus with two female figures, "Sorgen" ("Sorrow") and "Berømmelsen" ("Fame") is considered to be Denmark's first Neoclassical work. Wiedewelt went on to design large collections of sculptures for gardens such as those atFredensborg Palace. In 1769, he completed the monument toKing Frederik V in Roskilde Cathedral which includes a large sarcophagus resting on footpieces and decorated by numerous sculptures, behind which is a column topped by an urn, a medallion with the king's portrait, and on each side of the sarcophagus, reaching some nine feet above the floor, are two crowned, grieving female figures representing Denmark and Norway. The memorial chapel was the result of collaboration between Wiedewelt and the architectCaspar Frederik Harsdorff. Wiedewelt was chosen for eight annual periods as Director of the Academy between 1772 and 1794. As a professor there, he introduced his Neoclassical theories to his students including the painter and architectNikolaj Abraham Abildgaard who later became Director of the Academy andBertel Thorvaldsen's instructor.[9]
Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770–1844) is the most famous Danish sculptor, recognized across Europe as one of the leading Neoclassical sculptors. After entering the Art Academy in Copenhagen when he was only 11, he went on to win all four of the institution's medals. In 1796, he received a stipend for a relatively short study tour to Italy but apart from a short visit to Denmark in 1819, he stayed in Rome for over 40 years. After a model for his statue ofJason and the Golden Fleece received recognition from the leading Italian sculptor of the day,Antonio Canova, his success was ensured. Thorvaldsen gradually employed numerous assistants, extending his work to be executed in five studios in Rome, as he received orders from all over Europe.[10]
Among his most important works are the colossal series of statues ofChrist and the twelveApostles for the rebuilding ofVor Frue Kirke in Copenhagen. Motifs for his works (reliefs, statues, and busts) were drawn mostly fromGreek mythology with statues ofVenus,Mercury,Ganymede,Hebe, andCupid and Psyche, but he also created portraits of important personalities, as in histomb monument forPope Pius VII inSt Peter's Basilica, Rome or the equestrian statue ofJozef Poniatowski in Warsaw. His works can be seen in many European countries, but there is a very large collection at theThorvaldsen Museum in Copenhagen. During his stay in Rome, Thorvaldsen played an important role in encouraging young Danish artists spending time in the city.[11]
Three of those who had studied under Thorvaldsen in Rome made significant contributions to the development of Danish sculpture, influenced on the one hand by their master's interest in classicism and on the other by a growing interest in nationalism in their mother country.
Hermann Ernst Freund (1786–1840), who had been Thorvaldsen's closest assistant in Rome, was an early proponent of Danishromantic nationalism, creating 12 statuettes of figures fromNordic mythology, notablyLoki (1822),Odin (bronze 1827) andThor (1829), all inspired by ancient Greek and Roman mythological works.[12] His masterpiece, the Ragnarok Frieze, which occupied him for many years, was completed byBissen after his death but was later destroyed by the Christianborg fire. There is a plaster cast of part of the frieze inStatens Museum for Kunst.[13]
Herman Wilhelm Bissen (1798–1868), initially a Neoclassicist, is remembered for theRealism of his monumental works celebrating Danish military victories while reflecting the nationalistic trend of the times. Bissen'sLandsoldaten orDanish Soldier (1858) inFredericia andIsted Lion (1862) inFlensburg were both erected to commemorate the Danish victory overSchleswig-Holstein at theBattle of Isted (Idstedt) on 25 July 1850. TheDanish Soldier is notable in that it does not depict a high-ranking officer but rather a simple footsoldier with whom Danish citizens could readily identify.[14] Bissen was inspired to design his massive bronze Isted Lion after studying thePiraeus Lion in Venice where it had been displayed as a prize of war since 1687. After a colourful history of moves to Berlin and Copenhagen, the Isted Lion was finally returned to its original setting in Flensburg in 2011.[15]
Jens Adolf Jerichau (1816–1883) initially followed closely in Thorvaldsen's footsteps with his Neoclassical workHercules and Hebe (1846) and his colossal figure of Christ from 1849. He then went on to develop his own, more dynamic style which can be seen inThe Panther Hunter (1846), a work which has been seen as a prime example of the relationship between classical art and modern trends in naturalism.[16]
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Some sculptors continued to create statues based on classical figures but now with a more Naturalistic look. A good example isAksel Hansen'sEcho (1888) in theRosenborg Castle Gardens. The Greek nymph's lively contemporary look of a woman in motion contrasts with the more rigid harmony of Classicism.[17]Anders Bundgaard (1864–1937) is remembered for his huge statue nearLangelinie of the Norse goddessGefion (1900) driving her oxen.[18]
But as the turn of the century approached, new trends developed, starting withHistoricism and the need to pay tribute to Danes who had become famous.August Saabye (1823–1916), one of Bissen's students at the Academy, first maintained the Neoclassical tradition but was later inspired by French Naturalism.[19] His finest work is certainly the bronze statue ofHans Christian Andersen in the Rosenborg Gardens which he completed in 1880. By depicting Andersen in a sitting position addressing his audience, Saabye was able to capture the author's inner qualities which meant so much to the Danish public.[20] Saabye is also known for his statue of composerJohan Peter Emilius Hartmann. Bissen's son,Vilhelm Bissen, also sculpted a number of famous figures includingN. F. S. Grundtvig at theMarble Church,Christian IV atNyboder andAbsalon onHøjbro Plads in Copenhagen.[21] Reference can also be made to sculptorCarl Hartmann.
The other evolving artistic trend which attracted the attention of Danish sculptors wasSymbolism.Niels Hansen Jacobsen (1861–1941), who spent several years in Paris at the end of the century, came under the influence ofAuguste Rodin. He created several controversial bronzes includingTrold, der vejrer kristenblod (1896) orTroll that smells Christian blood based on a Norse folktale. The original is inNy Carlsberg Glyptotek but there is a copy outsideJesus Church in Valby for which it was originally designed.[22] Other Danish sculptors who were influenced by Rodin's symbolism includeStephan Sinding (1846–1922) andRudolph Tegner (1873–1950).[23]
One of the first women to become active in Danish sculpture wasAnne Marie Carl-Nielsen (1863–1945), the wife ofCarl Nielsen. A sense of vitality combining Naturalism with Classicism can be seen her works, most of which depict either animals or the human figure. Of particular note are the three bronze doors ofRibe Cathedral (1904), the equestrian statue ofKing Christian IX (1927) and the monument dedicated to her husband,The Young Man playing Pan-pipes on a Wingless Pegasus (1939), in Copenhagen.[24]
Kai Nielsen (1882–1924) accomplished a significant breakthrough with his erotic female figures, frequently based on mythological characters. Among his finest works are the bronzeBlind almuepige (Blind Peasant Girl, 1907),Marmorpigen (The Marble Girl, 1910) andLeda med svanen (Leda and the Swan, 1918) in limestone. At the Academy, he had been instructed byEdvard Eriksen (1876–1959) who is famous for another bronze female figure,Den lille havfrue (The Little Mermaid, 1913).[25]
For a period, Denmark became identified with French-inspiredModernism with sculptors such asJean Gauguin (1881–1961)andAdam Fischer (1888–1968) demonstrating a spirit of cultural optimism in contrast to the nations in conflict during theFirst World War. Fischer's geometrically designedDanserinde (Dancing Girl) from 1917 also demonstrates the influence ofCubism. Another significant contributor of the period wasSvend Rathsack (1885–1941) who together with the architectIvar Bentsen designed the Maritime Monument (Søfartsmonumentet) on Langelinie.[26]
Between the wars there was an interest in creating statues of ordinary people in their everyday clothes as can be seen inPovl Søndergaard'sMand og pige (Man and Girl, 1934)[27] andKnud Nellemose'sAvismanden Leitriz (1935), depicting a newspaperman dressed in the clothes he wore when selling newspapers in the streets of Copenhagen.[28]Gunnar Westman (1915–1985) who came under the influence ofBror Hjorth in Sweden developed a simplified style which can be seen in his works representing children such asBørn ved vinduet (Children at the Window, 1947),Gøgeungen andBørnehaven (1948).[29] Also in the 1930s,Gottfred Eickhoff (1902–1982) sculpted simplified human figures inspired by the influence of his French instructorsCharles Despiau andAristide Maillol. Unveiled in 1940, his statue ofRoepiger (The Beet Girls) can be seen inSakskøbing on the island ofLolland.[30]
The 1930s also saw the influence ofSurrealism, for example in the work ofEjler Bille (1910–2004) with his early animal-like figures.[31]Henry Heerup (1907–1993) developed an interest in "junk models" made from trash he found in the streets. He is also remembered for sculpting the original shape of a stone.[32]Sonja Ferlov, remembered for herOwl (1935) and her African-inspired designs, was also an important associate of these surrealistic artists who together were leading members of theLinien association.[33][34] Probably the best known participant in Danish Surrealism wasWilhelm Freddie (1909–1995) who took a more explicitly sexual approach to Surrealism. This can be seen in hisSex-paralysappeal (1936) which was confiscated by the police on the grounds of pornography.[35][36]
As in France, immediately after theSecond World War Danish sculpture was dominated bySpontaneism andConcretism. Spontaneism, which stemmed from Expressionism and Surrealism, led to the formation of theCOBRA movement withAsger Jorn (1914–1973) in the forefront.[37] His most important sculptural work, the large relief (1959) forÅrhus Statsgymnasium, is a huge ceramic, 27 metres long.[38][39] Concretism which developed from the abstract geometrical art of the 1920s was influenced by theDada movement leading toLinien II in 1947. Also in the 1950s,Svend Wiig Hansen (1922–1997) focused on the erotic power of the human body as in his cementModer Jord (Mother Earth, 1953) inHerning Art Museum.[40][41] An important and profuse contributor in the 1950s and 1960s wasJørgen Haugen Sørensen (born 1934) whose slaughtered animals allowed him to explore new avenues of abstract Expressionism, representing his views of the human condition in his own, often brutal style.[42][43]
The Concretist movement sought to achieve a purity of expression for all cultures and ages.Robert Jacobsen (1912–1993), one of its early proponents, gained international recognition with his welded iron sculptures where lines and surfaces were enclosed in autonomous universes.[37][44] Another concretist in Linien II wasGunnar Aagaard Andersen (1919–1982) who developed socially-oriented sculpture at an international level.[45]
In the 1960s, minimalistic tendencies in German and American art were behind the meta-objective approach ofWilly Ørskov (1920-1990) who used everyday materials such as plastics and often inflated rubber to produce his works. Examples includeSommerskulptur (1965, Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum) andStabiler-Instabiler-Labiler (1968).[46][47] Others who experimented with untraditional materials wereBjørn Nørgaard (born 1947),Hein Heinsen (born 1935) andPer Kirkeby (born 1938).[37]
The 1970s showed a growing interest in American-inspired installations depicting the surrounding world and leading in 1973 to theInstitut for Skalakunst (Institute for Scalable Art) which was behind numerous democratically designed decorative works in public spaces around the country. The principal proponents wereMogens Møller,Hein Heinsen andStig Brøgger.[48][49]
In the 1980s, international Post-Modernism heralded a return to a more classical, intellectually based approach to sculpture avoiding the excesses of the avant-garde. Players here includedHenrik B. Andersen,Morten Stræde,Øivind Nygaard,Søren Jensen andElisabeth Toubro who had all been influenced at the Art Academy by Willy Ørskov and Hein Heinsen.[37][48]
Today, young Danish artists are increasingly seeking inspiration abroad, especially at Berlin's exhibitions.Per Arnoldi,Per Kirkeby andOlafur Eliasson have all carried out large-scale decorative work in the newCopenhagen Opera House (2004)[50] while in 2003 Elisabeth Toubro completed her controversialVanddragen (Water Dragon, 2003) in the centre of Aarhus.[51] The recentØrestad development has also seen the completion of monumental works includingPer Kirkeby'sMurstensskulptur (The Brick Wall, 2004), Hein Heinsen's bronzeDen store udveksler (The Great Exchange, 2005) and Bjørn Nørgaard's colourfulKærlighedsøen (Lake of Love, 2010).[48][52]
In addition to works displayed in towns and cities, a number of museums and gardens have collections of Danish sculpture:
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