Danish literature (Danish:Dansk litteratur) stretches back to theMiddle Ages. The earliest preserved texts fromDenmark arerunic inscriptions on memorial stones and other objects, some of which contain short poems inalliterative verse. In the late 12th centurySaxo Grammaticus wroteGesta Danorum. During the 16th century, theLutheran Reformation came to Denmark. During this era,Christiern Pedersen translated theNew Testament into Danish andThomas Kingo composed hymns. Fine poetry was created in the early 17th century byAnders Arrebo (1587–1637). The challenges faced during Denmark'sabsolute monarchy in 1660 are chronicled inJammersminde (Remembered Woes) byLeonora Christina of the Blue Tower.Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), influenced by the ideas of theEnlightenment andHumanism, is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature. Neoclassical poetry, drama, and the essay flourished during the 18th century influenced by French and English trends. German influence is seen in the verse of the leading poets of the late 18th century such asJohannes Ewald andJens Baggesen. Other 18th century writers include the hymn writerHans Adolph Brorson and the satirical poetJohan Herman Wessel.
During Denmark'sGolden Age (1800–1850), literature centred onRomantic thinking, with authors such as philosopherHenrik Steffens (1773–1845) and the poetBernhard Severin Ingemann (1789–1862). One of the most important figures in Danish literary culture wasNikolaj Grundtvig (1783–1872).Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) is remembered first and foremost for hisfairy tales, written between 1835 and 1872.Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) was anexistentialist philosopher and a theologian.Jens Peter Jacobsen (1847–1885) began thenaturalist movement in Denmark with his romantic, melancholic poems. TheModern Breakthrough was a Scandinavian movement influenced by naturalism towards the end of the 19th century (1870–1890), led byGeorg Brandes (1842–1927). Other writers includeHolger Drachmann (1846–1908),Herman Bang (1857–1912), andSophus Schandorph (1836–1901).
Henrik Pontoppidan (1857–1943) became aNobel prize winner in 1917 for his "authentic descriptions of present-day life in Denmark". The 20th century began with reactions against the naturalist movement, moving instead towards nationalism. Anational conservative trend was embodied in the works ofKaj Munk (1898–1944) andValdemar Rørdam (1872–1946). Modern realism was practiced byBang andJ.P. Jacobsen. Social realism was practiced byHans Kirk (1898–1962) andMartin Andersen Nexø (1869–1954).Jeppe Aakjær (1866–1930),Johannes Jørgensen (1866–1956) and Nobel prize-winnerJohannes V. Jensen (1873–1950) brought a new dimension to Danish literature.Karen Blixen (1885–1962), who also used thepen name "Isak Dinesen" is notable for her memoirOut of Africa (1937).
Important post-WW II authors includeTove Ditlevsen (1917–1976),Klaus Rifbjerg (1931–2015),Dan Turèll (1946–1993),Leif Davidsen (born 1950),Bjarne Reuter (born 1950),Peter Høeg (born 1957),Jens Christian Grøndahl (born 1959),Benny Andersen (1929–2018),Anders Bodelsen (1937–2021),Elsebeth Egholm (born 1960),Christian Kampmann (1939–1988),Dea Trier Mørch (1941–2001),Jakob Ejersbo (1968–2008),Jussi Adler-Olsen (born 1950), andBirgithe Kosovic (born 1972). Among today's most successful authors areLeif Davidsen who writes gripping spy stories with a political extension,Bjarne Reuter with his intriguing novels for younger readers andJens Christian Grøndahl whose love stories with a psychological twist include "Silence in October" and "An Altered Light".
The earliest preserved texts from Denmark arerunic inscriptions on memorial stones and other objects. Some of them contain short poems inalliterative verse.
The advent of Christianity in the 10th century brought Denmark into contact with European learning, including theLatin language and alphabet, but it was not until the late 12th century that this was to bear significant literary fruit inGesta Danorum, an ambitious historical work bySaxo Grammaticus. Saxo's work is an important primary source for the study ofScandinavian myths and legends as well as a lively account ofDanish history up to the author's own time. Other medieval literary works include the Danish ballads, recorded since the 16th century by aristocratic ladies in their manuscript albums. These led to the "Book of a Hundred Ballads (1591) published byAnders Sørensen Vedel, "Collection Tragica" (1695) byMetter Gøya and the "Book of a Hundred Ballads" byPeter Syv in 1695.[1]
| Reformation-era literature |
|---|
The 16th century brought theLutheran Reformation to Denmark and a new period in the nation's literature. Major authors of the time include the humanistChristiern Pedersen, who translated theNew Testament into Danish, andPoul Helgesen who vigorously opposed the Reformation. The 16th century also saw Denmark's earliest plays, including the works ofHieronymus Justesen Ranch. The 17th century was an era of renewed interest in Scandinavian antiquities with scholars likeOle Worm at the forefront. Though religious dogmatism was on the rise the passionate hymns ofThomas Kingo transcended the genre with personal expression.
Fine poetry was created in the early 17th century byAnders Arrebo (1587–1637).[2] He is remembered in particular forHexaemeron, a poem describing the six days of the Creation (c. 1622), published posthumously[3]
External struggles with Sweden and internal rivalries among the nobility leading to Denmark'sabsolute monarchy in 1660 are chronicled from a royal prisoner'sredemptive perspective inJammersminde (Remembered Woes), in the heartfelt prose ofLeonora Christina of the Blue Tower, written 1673–1698, but first published in 1869.
Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), influenced by the ideas of theEnlightenment andHumanism, is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature.[4][5] He is best known for the comedies he wrote in 1722–1728. Among the most popular areJean de France andErasmus Montanus, both in the satirical style ofMolière with pretentious, stereotyped characters. The first is about a Dane who, after picking up notions of the French language and lifestyle while in Paris, tries to impress his countrymen on his return to Denmark. The second presents Rasmus Berg, the son of a farmer. On completing his college education, he Latinized his name to Montanus and became a menace to his family and neighbours with all he has learned.[6]
Neoclassical poetry, drama, and the essay flourished during the 18th century influenced by French and English trends. German influence is seen in the verse of the leading poets of the late 18th century such asJohannes Ewald andJens Baggesen.[7][8]
Other 18th century writers include thepietist hymn writerHans Adolph Brorson and the witty, satirical poetJohan Herman Wessel.[9][10]
DuringDenmark's Golden Age (1800–1850), literature centred onRomantic thinking. It was introduced in 1802 by the philosopherHenrik Steffens who gave a successful series of lectures atElers Kollegium. He presented the main themes ofGerman romanticism, emphasising the relationship between nature, history and mankind.[11] The movement was maintained by theromanticists, especiallyAdam Oehlenschläger (1779–1850). Remembered today for hisDigte (1803) andPoetiske Skrifter (1805), Oehlenschläger quickly became the leading poet in Denmark.[12]Bernhard Severin Ingemann (1789–1862) also published a collection of romantic poems before producing first a number of plays, then a successful series of novels and finally a number of fine religious poems which, after being set to music, became an important addition to the hymns sung in Danish churches.[13]
One of the most important figures in Danish literary culture wasNikolaj Grundtvig (1783–1872) who instilled a growing spirit of nationalism based initially on hisNorthern Mythology (1808) and his long drama,The Fall of the Heroic Life in the North (1809). In addition to a huge stream of articles and poems, he wrote a number of books, including two histories of the world (1814 and 1817), the long historical poemRoskilde-Riim (Rhyme of Roskilde) (1813), and a book-sized commentary,Roskilde Saga. Grundtvig's hymn book effected a great change in Danish church services, substituting thehymns of the national poets for the slow measures of theorthodoxLutherans. In all Grundtvig wrote or translated about 1,500 hymns, including "God's Word Is Our Great Heritage", most of which are still frequently sung today.[14]
Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) is remembered first and foremost for hisfairy tales, written between 1835 and 1872 not only for children but for adults too. Among the most popular are "The Steadfast Tin Soldier", "The Snow Queen", "The Little Mermaid", "Thumbelina", "The Little Match Girl", and "The Ugly Duckling". Considered to be the father of the modern fairytale, Andersen wrote a total of 156 fairy stories, only 12 of which drew on folk tales. But Andersen also wrote a number of travel sketches, several novels including the well-received: "The Improvisatore" (1835), a series of poems, and his autobiography "The Fairy Tale of My Life" (1855).[15]
Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) was an existentialist philosopher and a theologian. Much of his philosophical work deals with the issues of how one lives, focusing on the priority of concrete human reality over abstract thinking and highlighting the importance of personal choice and commitment. His principal aesthetic works includeEither/Or (Enten-Eller) (1843),Philosophical Fragments (Philosophiske Smuler) (1844),Stages on Life's Way (Stadier paa Livets Vei) (1845) andConcluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments (Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift) (1846). OpposingHegelian philosophy, they promote the existential approach which raises the individual's awareness of God but intensifies his despair at not being able to achieve eternal truth. His religious works includeWorks of Love (Kjerlighedens Gjerninger) (1847) andPractice in Christianity(Indøvelse i Christendom) (1850).[16][17]
Modern Breakthrough was a strong Scandinavian movement coveringnaturalism and debating literature towards the end of the 19th century (1870–1890), replacingromanticism. The Danish theoristGeorg Brandes (1842–1927) is often considered to be the "wire-puller" behind the movement. During the Modern Breakthrough, authors revolted against old traditions, especiallyromanticism, introducing an increasingly international outlook, a freer view ofsexuality andreligion, along with interest in scientific breakthroughs such asDarwinism. Literature focused increasingly on realism.[18]Henrik Pontoppidan (1857–1943) became aNobel prize winner in 1917 for "his authentic descriptions of present-day life inDenmark." Pontoppidan's novels and short stories present an unusually comprehensive picture of his country and his epoch. As a writer he was an interesting figure, distancing himself both from the conservative environment in which he was brought up and from his socialist contemporaries and friends. He was the youngest and in many ways the most original and influential member of the Modern Breakthrough.[19]Karl Gjellerup (1857–1919) shared the Nobel Prize with Pontoppidan despite considerable controversy as a result of his German affiliations.[20]
Jens Peter Jacobsen (1847–1885) began thenaturalist movement in Denmark with his romantic, melancholic poems. He is remembered principally for his two novels:Fru Marie Grubbe (1876) andNiels Lyhne (1880).[21]
Other authors associated with the Modern Breakthrough movement includeHolger Drachmann (1846–1908), a popular poet in his day,Herman Bang (1857–1912), a successful novelist, andSophus Schandorph who gained fame with hisFra Provinsen (1876), a set of rustic tales.
The 20th century began with reactions against the naturalist movement, moving instead towards nationalism. Anational conservative trend was embodied in the works priest, novelist and playwrightKaj Munk, and in the neo-romanticist national poetry ofValdemar Rørdam.
A more influential trajectory took its cue from the modern realism ofBang andJ.P. Jacobsen, and developed an influential brand ofsocial realism. Prime exponents for this trend wasHans Kirk andMartin Andersen Nexø who's "Pelle the Conqueror" (Pelle Erobreren) (1906–1910) breaks new ground in presenting theworking class, especially the working woman. Popular writers likePoul Henningsen (known as PH), andHans Scherfig followed Brandes' track of aradical cultural critique.
The period also saw the introduction of a regional approach to literature by writers such asJeppe Aakjær (1866–1930) fromJutland and his wife Marie Bregendahl. Focusing more on personal concerns,Johannes Jørgensen (1866–1956) and Nobel prize-winnerJohannes V. Jensen (1873–1950) brought a new dimension to their poetry, moving from lyricism to the meaning of existence.[22]
Karen Blixen (1885–1962), who also used the pen name "Isak Dinesen", was an unusually sensitive author, writing in both English and Danish and often adopting a fairy-tale style. Her first successful work, the enigmatic "Seven Gothic Tales", was published in the United States in 1934. Other important works include her memoirOut of Africa (1937), recording her experiences inKenya, and two more collections of finely crafted short stories, "Winter's Tales" (1942) and "Last Tales" (1957).[22]
Tove Ditlevsen (1917–1976) was an important poet, as well as a novelist, essayist and short-story writer. She became one of the most widely read women writers in Denmark. Known for her direct style and honest accounts of her private life in the poorer quarters of Copenhagen, Ditlevsen enjoyed popularity from the 1940s until her tragic suicide in 1976. Among her most popular works are her autobiographical novelBarndommens Gade translated as "Childhood's Street" (1943) and her harshly honest memoirsDet tidlige forår translated as "Early Spring" (1976).[23]
Klaus Rifbjerg (1931–2015) has published over 100 novels as well as poetry, short stories and TV plays. Among his works which have been translated into English areWitness to the Future andWar. In his novel "Den kroniske uskyld" (Chronic Innocence) (1958) about a generation which experienced problems with its personal development and its sexuality, Rifbjerg created an image of himself as a provocative and scandalous author. The novel, now a classic, is the first clear sign in Rifbjerg's work of the theme of puberty which has reappeared in much of his later fiction.[24]
Dan Turèll (1946–1993) was an extremely prolific writer who is perhaps remembered above all for his 12 detective stories, the first of whichMord i mørket (Murder in the Dark) was published in 1981, the lastMord i San Francisco (Murder in San Francisco) in 1990. But he also wrote a passionate autobiographical novel,Vangede billeder (Images of Vangede) (1975), as well as many collections of modern poetry.[25]
Leif Davidsen (born 1950) worked mainly in Spain and Russia as a freelance journalist forDanmarks Radio and a number of Danish newspapers. He is now better known as the author of gripping thrillers, several of which combine politics with espionage in Eastern Europe. His first book, published in 1984, was followed by eight others, all of them immediately popular in Denmark and later elsewhere in translation.[26] English translations include "Russian Singer" (Den russiske sangerinde 1988), "The Serbian Dane" (Den serbiske dansker 1996) and "Lime's Photograph" (Lime's billede 1998), all of which have been filmed.[27] Published in Danish in 2008, his most recent bookPå udkig efter Hemingway (roughly translated "Looking for Hemingway"), is a story of espionage based in Cuba.[28]
Bjarne Reuter (born 1950) is an extremely productive and popular writer, especially in regard to children's literature. Many of his stories have appeared as films, including "Zappa" (1977) and "Busters Verden" (Buster's World) (1979).[29] Most of his books are set in the 1950s and 1960s in Copenhagen. English translations include "The Boys from St. Petri" (Drengene fra Sankt Petri) (1991) and "The Ring of the Slave Prince" (Prins Faisals ring) (2000).[30]
Peter Høeg (born 1957) began his literary career in 1988 with his novelForestilling om det tyvende århundrede (English: The History of Danish Dreams) whose colourful characters participate in Denmark's transition to a modern welfare state. It was, however,Frøken Smillas fornemmelse for sne (English:Smilla's Sense of Snow) in 1992 which became his real breakthrough. Released as a movie in 1997, it tells the story of how Smilla, a Greenlander, helps to solve the mystery behind a boy who falls to his death from a rooftop into the snow below. Almost as popular are his novelsDe måske egnede orBorderliners (1994),Kvinden og aben orThe Woman and the Ape (1996) andDen stille pige orThe Quiet Girl (2007).[31][32]
Jens Christian Grøndahl (born 1959) began his literary career in 1985 with novels in the rather complex Frenchnouveau roman style. His breakthrough came in 1998 with his more traditionally structuredLucca which had far more general appeal. Grøndahl's psychological insight into amorous relationships between individuals of different ages has made him one of Denmark's most appreciated modern novelists.[33] Several of his books have been translated into English includingTavshed i oktober (Silence in October) (1996),Virginia (2000) andEt andet lys (An Altered Light) (2002).[34]
Among other popular contemporary authors are:
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg) | This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding missing information.(August 2017) |
In 2002, a total of 30 million books—or six for every person—were sold in Denmark, with one in five being in English.[45] Statistics for 2009 show that the book market, like other sectors, suffered a reduction of 9.1% in sales. These figures cover both the private and public sectors, including a surprising drop in book sales to schools.[46]
